Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations

Boon Tiong Chua; Kali Prasad Nepal

doi:doi:10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations

Boon Tiong Chua^*

, Kali Prasad Nepal

Published in American Journal of Civil Engineering (Volume 13, Issue 6)

Received: 27 October 2025 Accepted: 7 November 2025 Published: 9 December 2025

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Abstract

The design of heavy-duty flexible pavements for highways is well-established in the United States, Europe, and Australia. However, a standardised design methodology for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements–specifically tailored for ports and intermodal container terminals–remains lacking. These pavements present unique challenges due to significant variations in several load repetitions, load magnitudes, long-term static loads, tyre pressures, wheel and axle configurations, and loading characteristics, with axle loads reaching up to 120 tonnes. Existing design methods are often influenced by industry interests, such as concrete interlocking pavers, concrete, and asphalt, leaving pavement practitioners with limited tools to optimise designs for the extreme load conditions encountered over the pavement’s design life. Traditionally, extra heavy-duty pavements are considered high-risk areas due to their high failure rates and the substantial costs associated with such failures. This study provides a comprehensive review of existing design methodologies and software available internationally, critically compares these methods, and discusses other critical considerations to mitigate the risks of extra heavy-duty pavement failure. The literature review reveals that the development of develop unified design guidelines for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements intended to withstand severe axle loads up to 120 tonnes or more would require further research in this area.

Published in	American Journal of Civil Engineering (Volume 13, Issue 6)
DOI	10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12
Page(s)	329-349
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Extra Heavy-duty Pavement, Design Methods, Design Tools, Subgrade Failure Criteria

References

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Chua, B. T., Nepal, K. P. (2025). Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations. American Journal of Civil Engineering, 13(6), 329-349. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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Chua, B. T.; Nepal, K. P. Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations. Am. J. Civ. Eng. 2025, 13(6), 329-349. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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AMA Style

Chua BT, Nepal KP. Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations. Am J Civ Eng. 2025;13(6):329-349. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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@article{10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12,
  author = {Boon Tiong Chua and Kali Prasad Nepal},
  title = {Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations},
  journal = {American Journal of Civil Engineering},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {329-349},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajce.20251306.12},
  abstract = {The design of heavy-duty flexible pavements for highways is well-established in the United States, Europe, and Australia. However, a standardised design methodology for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements–specifically tailored for ports and intermodal container terminals–remains lacking. These pavements present unique challenges due to significant variations in several load repetitions, load magnitudes, long-term static loads, tyre pressures, wheel and axle configurations, and loading characteristics, with axle loads reaching up to 120 tonnes. Existing design methods are often influenced by industry interests, such as concrete interlocking pavers, concrete, and asphalt, leaving pavement practitioners with limited tools to optimise designs for the extreme load conditions encountered over the pavement’s design life. Traditionally, extra heavy-duty pavements are considered high-risk areas due to their high failure rates and the substantial costs associated with such failures. This study provides a comprehensive review of existing design methodologies and software available internationally, critically compares these methods, and discusses other critical considerations to mitigate the risks of extra heavy-duty pavement failure. The literature review reveals that the development of develop unified design guidelines for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements intended to withstand severe axle loads up to 120 tonnes or more would require further research in this area.},
 year = {2025}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations
AU  - Boon Tiong Chua
AU  - Kali Prasad Nepal
Y1  - 2025/12/09
PY  - 2025
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DO  - 10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12
T2  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JF  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JO  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
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PB  - Science Publishing Group
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UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12
AB  - The design of heavy-duty flexible pavements for highways is well-established in the United States, Europe, and Australia. However, a standardised design methodology for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements–specifically tailored for ports and intermodal container terminals–remains lacking. These pavements present unique challenges due to significant variations in several load repetitions, load magnitudes, long-term static loads, tyre pressures, wheel and axle configurations, and loading characteristics, with axle loads reaching up to 120 tonnes. Existing design methods are often influenced by industry interests, such as concrete interlocking pavers, concrete, and asphalt, leaving pavement practitioners with limited tools to optimise designs for the extreme load conditions encountered over the pavement’s design life. Traditionally, extra heavy-duty pavements are considered high-risk areas due to their high failure rates and the substantial costs associated with such failures. This study provides a comprehensive review of existing design methodologies and software available internationally, critically compares these methods, and discusses other critical considerations to mitigate the risks of extra heavy-duty pavement failure. The literature review reveals that the development of develop unified design guidelines for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements intended to withstand severe axle loads up to 120 tonnes or more would require further research in this area.
VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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Boon Tiong Chua

Infrastructure Solutions Australia, KBR, Adelaide, Australia

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8127-7797
Kali Prasad Nepal

Civil Engineering Department, Central Queensland University, Melbourne, Australia

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7497-1983

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Chua, B. T., Nepal, K. P. (2025). Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations. American Journal of Civil Engineering, 13(6), 329-349. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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ACS Style

Chua, B. T.; Nepal, K. P. Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations. Am. J. Civ. Eng. 2025, 13(6), 329-349. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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AMA Style

Chua BT, Nepal KP. Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations. Am J Civ Eng. 2025;13(6):329-349. doi: 10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12

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@article{10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12,
  author = {Boon Tiong Chua and Kali Prasad Nepal},
  title = {Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations},
  journal = {American Journal of Civil Engineering},
  volume = {13},
  number = {6},
  pages = {329-349},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ajce.20251306.12},
  abstract = {The design of heavy-duty flexible pavements for highways is well-established in the United States, Europe, and Australia. However, a standardised design methodology for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements–specifically tailored for ports and intermodal container terminals–remains lacking. These pavements present unique challenges due to significant variations in several load repetitions, load magnitudes, long-term static loads, tyre pressures, wheel and axle configurations, and loading characteristics, with axle loads reaching up to 120 tonnes. Existing design methods are often influenced by industry interests, such as concrete interlocking pavers, concrete, and asphalt, leaving pavement practitioners with limited tools to optimise designs for the extreme load conditions encountered over the pavement’s design life. Traditionally, extra heavy-duty pavements are considered high-risk areas due to their high failure rates and the substantial costs associated with such failures. This study provides a comprehensive review of existing design methodologies and software available internationally, critically compares these methods, and discusses other critical considerations to mitigate the risks of extra heavy-duty pavement failure. The literature review reveals that the development of develop unified design guidelines for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements intended to withstand severe axle loads up to 120 tonnes or more would require further research in this area.},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - Evaluation of Design Techniques for Extra Heavy-duty Flexible Pavements and Other Critical Considerations
AU  - Boon Tiong Chua
AU  - Kali Prasad Nepal
Y1  - 2025/12/09
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12
DO  - 10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12
T2  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JF  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
JO  - American Journal of Civil Engineering
SP  - 329
EP  - 349
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2330-8737
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajce.20251306.12
AB  - The design of heavy-duty flexible pavements for highways is well-established in the United States, Europe, and Australia. However, a standardised design methodology for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements–specifically tailored for ports and intermodal container terminals–remains lacking. These pavements present unique challenges due to significant variations in several load repetitions, load magnitudes, long-term static loads, tyre pressures, wheel and axle configurations, and loading characteristics, with axle loads reaching up to 120 tonnes. Existing design methods are often influenced by industry interests, such as concrete interlocking pavers, concrete, and asphalt, leaving pavement practitioners with limited tools to optimise designs for the extreme load conditions encountered over the pavement’s design life. Traditionally, extra heavy-duty pavements are considered high-risk areas due to their high failure rates and the substantial costs associated with such failures. This study provides a comprehensive review of existing design methodologies and software available internationally, critically compares these methods, and discusses other critical considerations to mitigate the risks of extra heavy-duty pavement failure. The literature review reveals that the development of develop unified design guidelines for extra heavy-duty flexible pavements intended to withstand severe axle loads up to 120 tonnes or more would require further research in this area.
VL  - 13
IS  - 6
ER  -

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