Abstract
The intensive use of pesticides in the rice-growing areas of the Baguineda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB), as in several other rice-growing regions of Mali, is raising growing concerns about the environment and public health. This study was conducted to examine the impact of pesticide use on the quality of rice-producing soils, through an assessment of farmers' knowledge and practices and the detection and quantification of pesticide residues in soil samples. Preliminary surveys were conducted in four villages of Baguineda (Dougourakoro, Kognimba, Sebela, and Mofa) to identify the pesticides currently used by the farmers. These surveys involved 50 respondents with 15 farmers from Kognimba and Dougourakoro villages and 10 farmers from Mofa and Sebela. Subsequently, a sampling campaign collected 40 soil samples, which were analyzed at the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Bamako using an Agilent 7890 gas chromatograph. The surveys identified a list of 19 active pesticide substances currently used in the OPIB production area, including three herbicides, two fungicides, and fourteen insecticides. Four methods of managing empty pesticide packaging used by producers were also identified. Pesticide application practices, such as over- and under-dosing, were also observed. Among farmers, 33.5% follow the advice of OPIB supervisors on pesticide use, 44.5% rely on local distributors, while 12.25% follow the advice of their neighbors and 9.75% rely on their own experience, with none of them admitting to following the recommendations of pesticide manufacturers. These varied practices, including failure to comply with recommended dosages and lack of expert advice, contribute directly to soil contamination, as evidenced by the presence of three organochlorine pesticides (endosulfan α, endosulfan β, and lindane) and two organophosphates (dichlorvos and chlorpyrifos) in the samples analyzed. The concentrations measured, ranging from 0.008 to 0.28 mg.kg-1, indicate that the soil is contaminated with pesticide residues, some of which are classified as persistent organic pollutants. This study highlights the need to continue adopting sustainable agricultural practices and raising farmers' awareness of the risks associated with the safe use of pesticides in order to preserve soil quality and public health in OPIB rice growing areas.
Keywords
Pesticide Residues, Rice Growing, Soil, Contamination, Baguineda, Mali
1. Introduction
Mali is a Sahelian country in West Africa, agriculture remains the pillar of the national economy, accounting for around 40% of gross domestic product (GDP) and constituting the main source of incomes for the majority of the rural population
| [1] | FAO Mali. Country Programming Framework 2023-2027. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2023. https://www.fao.org/mali |
[1]
. Among the strategic sectors, rice cultivation occupies a prominent place, with an estimated contribution of 8.3% of agricultural GDP
| [2] | Sangare, Y., Sidibé, Y., Maiga B. T., Diallo, F. Dynamique de la filière riz au Mali. Revue Internationale de la Recherche Scientifique et de l’Innovation, 2024, 2(6): 1233-1258. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14561663 |
[2]
. The country is now one of the top four rice producers in Africa, with annual production exceeding two million tons
| [3] | CILSS. Statistiques agricoles sur la production de riz en Afrique de l’Ouest; 2022. http://www.cilss.int |
[3]
.
The Baguinéda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB) was set up in this context to play a crucial role in national food security policy through the promotion of rice cultivation. However, phytosanitary constraints, particularly insect attacks, fungal diseases, and weeds, are pushing producers to resort to the massive use of pesticides. Although these products improve yields, their excessive and often uncontrolled use poses a serious threat to human health, the environment, and soil quality
.
Since the 1990s, Africa has seen an exponential increase in pesticide use, with a 261% increase between 1990 and 2010. Mali is no exception to this trend, consuming more than 5,400 tons of pesticides each year, 90% of which are used in the agricultural sector
| [6] | MSM. Rapport national sur les intoxications aux pesticides au Mali. Ministère de la Santé du Mali; 2021. |
[6]
. This growing use of plant protection products, which are often poorly stored and misused, leads to frequent cases of poisoning. In Mali, pesticides are the third leading cause of accidental poisoning deaths
| [7] | Kaur, R., Kaur, S., Deol, J. S., Sharma, R., Kaur, T., Brar, A. S., Choudhary, O. P. Soil Properties and Weed Dynamics in Wheat as Affected by Rice Residue Management in the Rice–Wheat Cropping System in South Asia: A Review. Plants; 2021, 10, 953. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10050953 |
[7]
.
The use of pesticides in agriculture is a common practice intended to protect crops from pests and diseases. However, this practice can have adverse effects on soil quality, particularly in areas of intensive cultivation such as Baguineda, where rice farming is predominant. Field research has revealed elevated levels of pesticide residues in rice field soils, raising concerns about the sustainability of agricultural systems
| [8] | Gamon, M., Saez, E., Gil, J., and Boluda, R. Direct and Indirect Exogenous Contamination by Pesticides of Rice-Farming Soils in a Mediterranean Wetland. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology; 2003, 44, pp: 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-002-2008-3 |
[8]
.
Several studies have shown that pesticides can cause significant soil contamination. Pesticide residues can persist in the soil, affecting not only groundwater quality but also soil biodiversity
| [9] | Perez-Lucas, G., Vela, N., El Aatik, A., Navarro, S. Environmental risk of groundwater pollution by pesticide leaching through the soil profile in Pesticides, Anthropogenic Activities and the Health of our Environment. London: Intech Open; 2018. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.82418 |
[9]
. Pesticides, particularly insecticides and fungicides, disrupt soil microbiology, leading to a decrease in microbial diversity, which can affect decomposition processes and soil fertility
.
Although specific research on the impact of pesticides on soil quality in rice-growing areas in Baguineda is limited, some regional studies provide valuable information. The work of some authors shows that repeated pesticide application can alter the physical and chemical properties of soil, including its pH, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and organic matter
| [11] | Khaledian, Y., Brevik, E. C., Pereira, P., Cerdà, A., Fattah, M. A., and Tazikeh, H. Modeling soil cation exchange capacity in multiple countries. Catena; 2017, 158, pp: 194–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.07.002 |
[11]
. These changes can have long-term consequences for fertility and agricultural productivity.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
Baguineda is a rural commune in the Cercle of Kati and the Koulikoro region, located 30 km east of the city of Bamako on the banks of the Niger River. This rural commune covers an area of 987.04 km² and comprises 32 villages. The climate is Sudano-Sahelian, with a rainy season from June to October and annual rainfall of between 900 and 1,000 millimeters (mm). Agriculture, consisting mainly of rice cultivation with the facilities of the Baguneda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB) and market gardening, is the main economic activity of the population.
Figure 1. Study area showing sampling locations.
2.2. Survey and Collection of Pesticide Data Used by Rice Productors
Surveys were conducted to identify recent and older pesticides used by farmers in the four OPIB sectors during the 2021-2022 harvest season. The surveys were conducted according to the following plan:
1) Development of the questionnaire: A questionnaire was designed to collect information on pesticides used or currently in use in rice cultivation,
2) Organization of meetings: To facilitate the collection of information, meetings were held in the field with rice farmers in each sector visited.
3) Distribution of the questionnaire: The questionnaire was distributed to all participants present at these meetings.
4) Presentation and explanation: Before proceeding with data collection, we introduced our scientific team and the purpose of our visit, taking care to explain the content of the questionnaire in detail in order to obtain accurate responses. This approach was systematically applied in the four OPIB sectors in order to achieve our objectives.
Before the main survey was conducted, the questionnaire was tested on a small group of farmers to assess its clarity and relevance. This pilot phase identified any ambiguities and gathered constructive feedback on the wording of the questions. Based on this feedback, adjustments were made to refine the questionnaire, ensuring that it adequately met the study objectives and was appropriate for the context of the target farmers. This approach helped to improve the quality of the data collected during the main survey.
The survey was conducted among producers belonging to four major rice production sectors supervised by OPIB, namely Dougourakoro, Kognimba, Mofa, and Sebela. Its purpose was to document the use of pesticides on rice and vegetables produced in the study area. The four sectors were divided into two distinct subgroups based on the size of the areas cultivated per sector. The size of the samples to be surveyed per sector was set in proportion to the size of the production sector. Thus, fifteen producers per sector for Kognimba and Mofa and ten per sector for Dougourakoro and Sebela, bringing the total number of respondents to fifty for the four sectors. These producers were interviewed at random between November 23 and December 8, 2022, using a revised questionnaire focused on predefined objectives to document the main pests that attack rice and selected vegetables, pesticide use habits (type of pesticides, sources of supply, dosages, method of selecting the timing of spraying and interval of insecticide application, interval before harvest, etc.). In order to obtain valid and reliable data, the information was verified, corrected, and streamlined by repeating questions, interviewing neighboring farmers, and using the interviewer's personal judgment to ensure the accuracy of the respondent's answers.
2.3. Pesticide Residue Analysis
2.3.1. Sample Collection
All rice fields located within the Baguineda Irrigated Perimeter Office were first georeferenced using RTREX GPS, enabling each sampling point to be precisely located
| [12] | Leica Geosystems AG. (2014). RTREX GPS User Manual. Leica Geosystems AG. |
[12]
. Between November and December 2022, fourteen soil samples were collected from four OPIB sectors (Dougourakoro, Kognimba, Mofa and Sebela) and then placed in polyethylene bags. Each sample was labeled with a unique code comprising the producer's initials, the name of the village, and the month and year of collection. The samples were then transported in a cooler to the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Bamako.
2.3.2. Samples Preparation and Extraction
In the laboratory, each soil sample was dried at room temperature, then crushed, ground, and sieved to 1 mm. Solid-liquid extraction was performed according to EPA method 1699
| [13] | EPA. Pesticides in Water, Soil, Sediment, Biosolids, and Tissue by HRGC/HRMS (EPA Method 1699). United States Environmental Protection Agency; 2007. |
[13]
: 5 g of each sample was weighed, then 15 mL of a 50:50 v/v mixture of acetone and hexane was added. The sample was then vortexed and centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 5 minutes. This operation was repeated twice, with the third extraction requiring only 5 mL of hexane. The combined extracts were concentrated to 0.5 mL using a rotary evaporator
| [14] | Đurović‐Pejčev, R., Đorđević, T., Radivojević, L., and Šantrić, L. Multiresidue analysis of pesticides in soil by liquid–solid extraction procedure. Pesticidi i Fitomedicina; 2012, 27(3), pp: 239‑244. |
[14]
.
2.3.3. Preparation of Standards Solution
An accurately weighed 10mg of an individual analytical grade pesticide was dissolved in 10 ml volumetric flask using n-hexane to prepare the standard stock solution to 1000 mg.kg-1. Standard stock solution of each pesticide was serially diluted to obtain immediate lower concentration of 100 mg.kg-1. A mixture of standard stock pesticide solution (analyte MIX solution) was prepared by taking 0.1ml solution of compatible (deltametrin, dichlorvos, endosulfan A, endosulfan B, chlorpyrifos, Lamda Cyhalothrin, Lindane and Permethrin) pesticide in a 10ml volumetric flask and making the volume up to the mark with n-hexane. Standard mixture contained 10 mg.kg-1 of solution to determine the time of detection of the instrument. Then concentration standards 5 μg.mL-1 was prepared by dilution in hexane. Then an assay range of five different levels at concentrations (0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 and 1 μg.mL-1) was prepared and used for GC calibration.
3. Results
3.1. Commonly Used Pesticides Against Different Pest of Rice and Vegetables in Survey Area
Based on the responses provided by the 50 farmers surveyed in the four sectors regarding the different types of pesticides used, such as insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides to control pests, a list of nineteen (19) pesticides was compiled. The data collected was compared with the local pesticide distributors in these four sectors then the suggestions and recommendations of agricultural advisors from the Baguineda Irrigation Office (OPIB). The compiled and summarized results are presented in the
Table 1.
Table 1. Commonly used pesticides in the OPIB-Baguineda area.
Local name | Active Ingredient (Pesticide) | Use as |
Lambda | Lambda-Cyhalothrin | Insecticide |
Beret Rouge | Glyphosate | Herbicide |
Caima rouge | Deltamethrin | Insecticide |
Solevo | Permethrin | Insecticide |
Tangana | Cyperméthrin | Insecticide |
Fanga | Profenofos | Insecticide |
Aligator | Pendimethalin | Herbicide |
Glyphader | Glyphosate | Herbicide |
Pacha | Acetamiprid + L. Cyhalothrin | Insecticide |
Synpirifox | Chlorpyrifos | Insecticide |
Farima | Profenofos | Insecticide |
Champion | Chlorpyrifos | Insecticide |
Calfos | Profenofos | Insecticide |
Dursban | Chlorpyriphos-ethyl | Insecticide |
Magnum | Lambda | Insecticide |
Duron | Pirimiphos-ethyl | Insecticide |
Samory Toure | Bensulfuron-methyl | Insecticide |
Tihan | Spirotétramate | Insecticide |
Belt | Flubendiamide | Fungicide |
Rapax | Azoxystrobine | Fungicide |
*Source: Field surveys conducted in 2022 with OPIB by LCV.
The survey results were compiled based on the responses provided by producers. They classify pesticides according to their use. Of the nineteen molecules identified, two (2) are fungicides, three (3) are herbicides, and fourteen (14) are insecticides.
3.2. Pesticide Dosage Practices Among Farmers
Producers were surveyed to gather information on their pesticide use practices. The summary of responses to the various questions on this topic is presented in the
Table 2 below.
Table 2. Percentage of producers using pesticides according to instructions received from various advisors.
Sectors | Pesticide Use following Instructions |
OPIB’s advisors | Local Distributor | Neighboring Producers | Farmers own experience |
Kognimba | 31 | 47 | 12 | 10 |
Mofa | 28 | 41 | 17 | 14 |
Sebela | 35 | 43 | 12 | 10 |
Dougourakoro | 40 | 47 | 8 | 5 |
Average | 33,5 | 44,5 | 12,25 | 9,75 |
*Source: Field surveys conducted in 2022 with OPIB by LCV.
In the four selected sectors of the Baguineda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB), 33.5% of farmers used pesticides in accordance with the instructions and advice given by OPIB supervisors, and 44.5% followed the advice of the local pesticide distributor. New producers follow the advice of their neighbors (12,25%) and 9,75% of producers use their own experience. No producers admitted to following the instructions provided by the pesticide manufacturer. In the study villages, 17.15% of producers acknowledge having used higher application than those recommended by the various advisors operating in the area while 11.26% used lower application.
3.3. Management of Empty Pesticide Containers
The results of surveys on the management of empty pesticide packaging by rice producers in the four (4) sectors of OPIB Mali identified four (4) current practices as methods of managing this packaging. The table summarizes the main information collected:
Table 3. Percentage of producers using pesticides according to instructions received from various advisors.
Management Practices | Practice Rate | Description | Disadvantages |
Recovery and storage | 55 | Storage of empty pesticide containers in specific locations on farms | Storage is not carried out under safe conditions, which may pose contamination risks. |
Burning | 15 | Burning empty packaging on farms | Quick solution that can release toxic substances into the environment and is not a recommended method |
Informal recycling | 20 | Giving certain packaging a second life by reusing it for other purposes, such as storing water or grain | This practice poses enormous health risks, especially since it is very difficult to ensure that these packages are properly cleaned. |
Landfilling | 10 | Packaging buried in the soil on farms | This method can contaminate soil and groundwater in the long term. |
*Source: Field surveys conducted in 2022 with OPIB by LCV.
The practice rates were used to rank each management practice. The analysis shows that “recovery and storage” ranks first, followed by “informal recycling” in second place. Burning packaging ranks third, while landfilling is the least used practice.
3.4. Pesticide Residues in Soil Samples
This study involved taking forty (40) soil samples from twenty locations spread across four rice-growing areas designated as “sectors” by the Baguinéda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB). Analysis of the samples detected residues of nine (9) pesticides on the list of pesticides used (
Table 1): Endosulfan α, Endosulfan β, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Deltamethrin, Permethrin, Dichlorvos, Chlorpyrifos, Lindane, and Profenofos.
Table 4 shows the concentrations (in mg.kg
-1) found in the various soil samples. The majority of the results were below the analytical detection limit (<LOD), indicating low or non-existent residual levels in many cases, although traces of certain pesticides were occasionally observed at some sampling points.
Table 4. Quantity of residue of different pesticides quantified from soil samples collected from 4 OPIB’s sectors.
Samples Code | Quantity of detected residue (mg.kg-1) |
Endosulfan A | Endosulfan B | Lambda- Cyhalothrin | Deltamethrin | Permethrin | Diclorvos | Chlorpyrifos | Lindane | Profenofos |
KS2E6 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0,055 | ND |
SS3E11 | 0,074 | 0,103 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND |
SS3E14 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0,008 | ND | ND | ND |
MS4E18 | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0,289 | ND | ND |
ND: Not Detected 1mg.kg-1: 1 milligram of pesticide per kilogram of soil
The results of the soil sample analysis reveal a diversity in the presence of pesticide residues. These residues belong to two main groups of pesticides: Organophosphates (Chlorpyrifos and Profenofos) and Organochlorines (Endosulfan A, Endosulfan B and Lindane). In the four sectors studied, chlorpyrifos residues were detected at a concentration of 0.008 mg.kg-1, indicating a very low presence. This low concentration could suggest limited use or rapid degradation of this pesticide in the environment. In contrast, Profenofos residues were quantified at 0.055 mg.kg-1. This concentration could indicate exposure to or specific use of this pesticide, which warrants further investigation to understand current agricultural practices. In addition, levels of Endosulfan A (0.074 mg.kg-1), Endosulfan B (0.103 mg.kg-1), and Lindane (0.289 mg.kg-1) were also detected in the samples. The presence of these organochlorine pesticides at high levels suggests two to three possible scenarios:
1) Previous use of these products, which could still be affecting the soil.
2) Recent use, which could indicate continued application in agricultural practices.
3) It is also possible that both cases coexist, raising questions about the potential impact of these residues on the environment and public health.
4. Discussion
The results obtained regarding pesticide use by farmers in the sectors of the Baguinéda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB) showed that only 33.5% of farmers use pesticides in accordance with the instructions and advice of OPIB supervisors. This indicates a certain level of compliance with professional recommendations, but there is still a significant percentage of farmers (66.25%) who do not follow this advice. This could be due to several factors, such as a lack of awareness of the importance of following these guidelines or insufficient confidence in the recommendations provided. According to a FAO study, following expert recommendations is crucial to minimizing the environmental and health impacts of pesticides
| [15] | FAO. Pesticide management in agriculture: A guide for decision-makers. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; 2017. |
[15]
.
The fact that 44.5% of farmers follow the advice of local pesticide distributors raises concerns. Pesticide distributors may be motivated by commercial interests, which can influence the quality of the advice they provide. Research by the Pesticide Action Network during 2018 highlights that distributors may sometimes promote products that are not the most appropriate for farmers, leading to excessive or inappropriate pesticide use
| [16] | Pesticide Action Network. The role of pesticide distributors in agricultural practices. Pesticides Action Network Africa; 2018. |
[16]
.
It is also interesting to note that only 12.25% of new producers follow the advice of their neighbors. This could indicate a lack of support networks or information sharing among farmers, which is essential for newcomers to the sector. Another study by showed that knowledge sharing among peers is essential for the effective adoption of good agricultural practices
| [17] | Cooreman, H., Vandenabeele, J., Debruyne, L., Ingram, J., Chiswell, H., Koutsouris, A., Pappa, E., Marchand F. A conceptual framework to investigate the role of peer learning processes at on-farm demonstrations in the light of sustainable agriculture. International Journal of Agricultural Extension; 2018, 13 (1), pp: 91-103. |
[17]
.
The fact that 9.75% of producers rely on their own experience highlights the need for ongoing training and education on pesticide use. The total absence of producers reporting that they follow pesticide manufacturers' instructions is particularly concerning. This could indicate mistrust of the information provided by manufacturers or a lack of access to these instructions. The work of another similar study emphasized the importance of communication between pesticide manufacturers and farmers to ensure the safe and effective use of chemicals
| [18] | Poudel, S., Poudel, B., Acharya, B., Poudel, P. Pesticide Use And Its Impacts On Human Health And Environment. Environment & Ecosystem Science, 2020, 4(1), pp: 47-51. https://doi.org/10.26480/ees.01.2020.47.51 |
[18]
.
The results of the survey on empty packaging management indicate that the practice of “collection and storage” is the most common among farmers, followed by “informal recycling.” This suggests that farmers are aware of the need to properly manage empty packaging and are seeking solutions to minimize environmental impacts. The practice of recovery and storage is often considered an essential first step in waste management, reducing the risk of contamination and promoting recycling
| [19] | Giusti, L. A review of waste management practices and their impact on human health. Waste Management; 2009, 29, pp: 2227–2239. |
[19]
.
On the other hand, “informal recycling” as a second practice can pose safety and efficiency issues. Authors who have worked on empty packaging management have reported that informal recycling can be associated with unregulated methods that do not guarantee worker safety or environmental protection
| [20] | Ferronato, N., and Torretta, V. Waste Mismanagement in Developing Countries. International Journal of Environmental Researh and Public Health; 2019, 16(6): 1060. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16061060 |
[20]
. This practice can also lead to the spread of toxic substances if packaging is not properly treated. The ranking of incineration in third place and landfill in last place also merits consideration. Incinerating packaging may seem like a quick solution, but it poses significant environmental risks, including the release of harmful air pollutants
| [21] | Lakhiar, I. A., Yan, H., Zhang, J., Wang, G., Deng, S., Bao, R., Zhang, C., Syed, T. N., Wang, B., Zhou, R. Plastic Pollution in Agriculture as a Threat to Food Security, the Ecosystem, and the Environment: An Overview. Agronomy; 2024, 14, 548. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14030548 |
[21]
. In light of a study on the same subject, it was concluded that the incineration of plastic waste, including pesticide packaging, can generate dioxins and furans, which are known to be carcinogenic substances
| [22] | Kumar, R., Verma, A., Shome, A., Sinha, R., Sinha, S., Jha, P. K., Kumar, R., Kumar, P., Shubham, Das, S.; Sharma, P. and Vara Prasad, P. V. Impacts of Plastic Pollution on Ecosystem Services, Sustainable Development Goals, and Need to Focus on Circular Economy and Policy Interventions. Sustainability; 2021, 13, 9963. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179963 |
[22]
.
Finally, the fact that landfilling is the least used practice may indicate farmers' awareness of the harmful effects of this method on the environment. The storage and landfilling of waste can lead to soil and groundwater contamination
| [23] | Owusu-Sekyere, K., Aladago, D. A., Leverenz, D., Oteng-Ababio, M., Kranert, M. Environmental Impacts on Soil and Groundwater of Informal E-Waste Recycling Processes in Ghana. Sustainability; 2024, 16, 4347. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16114347 |
[23]
.
Farmers reported using higher doses of pesticides than those recommended by advisors and distributors due to the apparent ineffectiveness of the pesticides. In some cases, they reported using lower doses due to the high price of certain pesticides. Farmers' statements regarding the use of pesticide doses higher than those recommended highlight a critical issue in the management of plant protection products in agriculture. Several studies have shown that the perceived effectiveness of pesticides can influence farmers' decisions. For example, research conducted by the Pesticide Action Network (PAN) revealed that farmers, faced with resistant pests, are often tempted to increase doses to achieve the desired results
| [24] | Xu, Y., Xue X., Dong L., Nai, C., Liu, Y., and Huang Q. Long-term dynamics of leachate production, leakage from hazardous waste landfill sites and the impact on groundwater quality and human health. Waste Management; 2018, 18 pp: 156-166, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.10.009 |
[24]
.
In addition, the use of excessive doses can have serious environmental and health consequences. According to a study concluted, applying higher than recommended doses can lead to increased soil and water contamination, affecting biodiversity and human health
| [25] | Pesticide Action Network (PAN). Pesticides and Their Alternatives: A Guide for Farmers; 2018. |
[25]
. This also raises concerns about pest resistance, which can be exacerbated by excessive pesticide use
| [26] | Tiwari, A. K., Hasan, W., Ishar A. K., and Hazarika, S. Understanding the Physicochemical Dynamics of Pesticides: Implications for Environmental Management and Sustainable Agriculture; 2024; 3(1): 12-17. https://doi.org/10.51470/AGRI.2024.3.1.12 |
[26]
.
On the other hand, farmers' decision to use lower doses due to the high cost of certain pesticides highlights the economic impact on agricultural practices. A study conducted by the World Bank during 2017 found that input costs, including pesticides, can influence farmers' management strategies
| [27] | World Bank. Agriculture and Climate Change: A Review of the Evidence; 2017. |
[27]
. Farmers often choose to reduce doses to minimize expenses, which could ultimately compromise their ability to manage pests effectively.
In 80% of the sites studied, no detectable residues were observed, suggesting that contamination was not widespread
| [28] | CSP. Rapport annuel sur l’usage des pesticides au Mali. Comité Sahélien des Pestides du CILSS; 2019. |
| [29] | Mwevura, H., Kylin, H., Vogt, T., and Bouwman, H. Dynamics of organochlorine and organophosphate pesticide residues in soil, water and sediment. Science of the Total Environment, 2023, 848, 156498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156498 |
[28, 29]
. However, four samples revealed the presence of persistent organochlorines: Endosulfan α (0.074 mg.kg
-1) Endosulfan β (0.103 mg.kg
-1) in Sébela, and Lindane (0.055 mg.kg
-1) in Kognimba, reflecting historical contamination in Sahelian soils consistent with a similar studies conducted during 2020 and confirmed in 2024
| [30] | Touré, A. Évaluation de la contamination des sols agricoles par les pesticides dans les zones cotonnières du Mali [Thèse de doctorat]. Université des Sciences, des Techniques et des Technologies de Bamako, 2020. |
| [31] | Kumar, R., and Patel, S. Environmental Fate and Sustainable Management of Pesticides in Sub‑Saharan Soils. Sustainability; 2024, 16(23), 10741. |
[30, 31]
.
Chlorpyrifos (0.289 mg.kg
-1) detected in Mofa and Dichlorvos (0.008 mg.kg
-1) in Sébela indicate recent use of organophosphate insecticides, probably in violation of current regulations
| [32] | INSD. Étude sur l’utilisation des pesticides au Mali [Institut National de la Statistique et de la Démographie (INSD)]. République du Mali, Ministère de l’Agriculture; 2002. |
[32]
. The copresence of old and new molecules highlights a gradual transition in phytosanitary practices
| [33] | Doe, J., and Smith, A. Assessment of Soil and Water Pollution from Organophosphate and Organochlorine Pesticides in Semi-arid Regions. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Resources; 2025, 12(1), pp: 121‑135. |
[33]
.
The distribution of residues, mainly concentrated in Sebela and Mofa, reflects irregular management (informal supply, non-compliant formats), as well as mobility influenced by soil characteristics and the effects of leaching linked to seasonal rains
| [28] | CSP. Rapport annuel sur l’usage des pesticides au Mali. Comité Sahélien des Pestides du CILSS; 2019. |
| [29] | Mwevura, H., Kylin, H., Vogt, T., and Bouwman, H. Dynamics of organochlorine and organophosphate pesticide residues in soil, water and sediment. Science of the Total Environment, 2023, 848, 156498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156498 |
[28, 29]
.
5. Conclusions
The results of the study provided a better understanding of the role played by the Baguineda Irrigated Perimeter Office in rice production, while highlighting the challenges associated with the increasing use of pesticides and the consequences for soil quality, the environment, and human health. A majority of producers do not follow professional recommendations, revealing a lack of awareness and perception of the risks associated with pesticide use. Dependence on local pesticide dealers, often motivated by commercial interests, increases the risk of excessive use of plant protection products. Soil contamination in rice-growing areas can be attributed to inappropriate agricultural practices by producers. Poor management of pesticide packaging, characterized by disposal techniques that do not meet the required standards, is a major problem. This poor management leads to leaks or direct spills of pesticides onto the soil, causing immediate contamination. Failure to comply with recommended dosages when applying pesticides is also a significant cause of soil contamination. Farmers who resort to overdosing, often in the hope of achieving better results against pests, contribute to increasing the concentration of pesticides in the soil beyond safe levels. In addition, the unsafe use of pesticides, applied under inappropriate conditions, also increases the risk of soil contamination. In addition, there are significant shortcomings in the management of empty packaging. Although pesticide residues are often below detection limits, their presence raises concerns about persistent contamination risks. Therefore, it is essential to implement training programs to promote sustainable agricultural practices and the safe use of pesticides in the area.
Abbreviations
CEC | Cation Exchange Capacity |
CSP | Comité Sahelien des Pesticides |
IER | Institut d’Economie Rurale |
EPA | Environmental Protection Agency |
ETQCL | Environmental Toxicology and Quality Control Laboratory |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization |
LCV | Laboratoire Central Veterinaire |
GDP | Gross Domestic Product |
LOD | Limit Of Detection |
ND | Not Detected |
OPIB | Office du Périmètre irrigué de Baguinéda |
PAN | Pesticides Action Network |
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Environmental Toxicology and Quality Control Laboratory (ETQCL) of the Central Veterinary Laboratory (LCV) to conduct the research successfully. We acknowledge our sincere thanks to all those from OPIB (Office du Périmètre Irrigué de Bamako) who extended their kind help and support. We would also like to thank the local authorities and producers in the villages for their availability and cooperation in gathering information.
Author Contributions
Boubacar Madio dit Aladiogo Maiga: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Rabiatou Tall: Formal Analysis, Investigation, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Amadou Maiga: Formal Analysis, Supervision, Visualization, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Aminata Sissoko: Data curation, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Fousseni Diallo: Investigation, Project administration, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Moussa Dembele: Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Mamadou Abdoulaye Konare: Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Nouhoum Coulibaly: Investigation, Project administration, Writing original draft, Writing review & editing
Ousmane Diarra: Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Supervision, Writing original draft, Writing, review & editing
Funding
Funding for this investigation was provided by the Central Veterinary Laboratory.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors hereby declare no conflicts of interest.
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APA Style
Aladiogo, M. B. M. D., Rabiatou, T., Amadou, M., Aminata, S., Fousseni, D., et al. (2025). Assessment of the Impact of Pesticides on Soil Quality in Rice-Growing Areas of Baguineda, Mali. International Journal of Environmental Chemistry, 9(2), 90-98. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16
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Aladiogo, M. B. M. D.; Rabiatou, T.; Amadou, M.; Aminata, S.; Fousseni, D., et al. Assessment of the Impact of Pesticides on Soil Quality in Rice-Growing Areas of Baguineda, Mali. Int. J. Environ. Chem. 2025, 9(2), 90-98. doi: 10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16
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AMA Style
Aladiogo MBMD, Rabiatou T, Amadou M, Aminata S, Fousseni D, et al. Assessment of the Impact of Pesticides on Soil Quality in Rice-Growing Areas of Baguineda, Mali. Int J Environ Chem. 2025;9(2):90-98. doi: 10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16
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@article{10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16,
author = {Maiga Boubacar Madio dit Aladiogo and Tall Rabiatou and Maiga Amadou and Sissoko Aminata and Diallo Fousseni and Dembele Moussa and Konare Mamadou Abdoulaye and Coulibaly Nouhoum and Diarra Ousmane},
title = {Assessment of the Impact of Pesticides on Soil Quality in Rice-Growing Areas of Baguineda, Mali},
journal = {International Journal of Environmental Chemistry},
volume = {9},
number = {2},
pages = {90-98},
doi = {10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijec.20250902.16},
abstract = {The intensive use of pesticides in the rice-growing areas of the Baguineda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB), as in several other rice-growing regions of Mali, is raising growing concerns about the environment and public health. This study was conducted to examine the impact of pesticide use on the quality of rice-producing soils, through an assessment of farmers' knowledge and practices and the detection and quantification of pesticide residues in soil samples. Preliminary surveys were conducted in four villages of Baguineda (Dougourakoro, Kognimba, Sebela, and Mofa) to identify the pesticides currently used by the farmers. These surveys involved 50 respondents with 15 farmers from Kognimba and Dougourakoro villages and 10 farmers from Mofa and Sebela. Subsequently, a sampling campaign collected 40 soil samples, which were analyzed at the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Bamako using an Agilent 7890 gas chromatograph. The surveys identified a list of 19 active pesticide substances currently used in the OPIB production area, including three herbicides, two fungicides, and fourteen insecticides. Four methods of managing empty pesticide packaging used by producers were also identified. Pesticide application practices, such as over- and under-dosing, were also observed. Among farmers, 33.5% follow the advice of OPIB supervisors on pesticide use, 44.5% rely on local distributors, while 12.25% follow the advice of their neighbors and 9.75% rely on their own experience, with none of them admitting to following the recommendations of pesticide manufacturers. These varied practices, including failure to comply with recommended dosages and lack of expert advice, contribute directly to soil contamination, as evidenced by the presence of three organochlorine pesticides (endosulfan α, endosulfan β, and lindane) and two organophosphates (dichlorvos and chlorpyrifos) in the samples analyzed. The concentrations measured, ranging from 0.008 to 0.28 mg.kg-1, indicate that the soil is contaminated with pesticide residues, some of which are classified as persistent organic pollutants. This study highlights the need to continue adopting sustainable agricultural practices and raising farmers' awareness of the risks associated with the safe use of pesticides in order to preserve soil quality and public health in OPIB rice growing areas.},
year = {2025}
}
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TY - JOUR
T1 - Assessment of the Impact of Pesticides on Soil Quality in Rice-Growing Areas of Baguineda, Mali
AU - Maiga Boubacar Madio dit Aladiogo
AU - Tall Rabiatou
AU - Maiga Amadou
AU - Sissoko Aminata
AU - Diallo Fousseni
AU - Dembele Moussa
AU - Konare Mamadou Abdoulaye
AU - Coulibaly Nouhoum
AU - Diarra Ousmane
Y1 - 2025/10/09
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16
DO - 10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16
T2 - International Journal of Environmental Chemistry
JF - International Journal of Environmental Chemistry
JO - International Journal of Environmental Chemistry
SP - 90
EP - 98
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2640-1460
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijec.20250902.16
AB - The intensive use of pesticides in the rice-growing areas of the Baguineda Irrigated Perimeter Office (OPIB), as in several other rice-growing regions of Mali, is raising growing concerns about the environment and public health. This study was conducted to examine the impact of pesticide use on the quality of rice-producing soils, through an assessment of farmers' knowledge and practices and the detection and quantification of pesticide residues in soil samples. Preliminary surveys were conducted in four villages of Baguineda (Dougourakoro, Kognimba, Sebela, and Mofa) to identify the pesticides currently used by the farmers. These surveys involved 50 respondents with 15 farmers from Kognimba and Dougourakoro villages and 10 farmers from Mofa and Sebela. Subsequently, a sampling campaign collected 40 soil samples, which were analyzed at the Central Veterinary Laboratory in Bamako using an Agilent 7890 gas chromatograph. The surveys identified a list of 19 active pesticide substances currently used in the OPIB production area, including three herbicides, two fungicides, and fourteen insecticides. Four methods of managing empty pesticide packaging used by producers were also identified. Pesticide application practices, such as over- and under-dosing, were also observed. Among farmers, 33.5% follow the advice of OPIB supervisors on pesticide use, 44.5% rely on local distributors, while 12.25% follow the advice of their neighbors and 9.75% rely on their own experience, with none of them admitting to following the recommendations of pesticide manufacturers. These varied practices, including failure to comply with recommended dosages and lack of expert advice, contribute directly to soil contamination, as evidenced by the presence of three organochlorine pesticides (endosulfan α, endosulfan β, and lindane) and two organophosphates (dichlorvos and chlorpyrifos) in the samples analyzed. The concentrations measured, ranging from 0.008 to 0.28 mg.kg-1, indicate that the soil is contaminated with pesticide residues, some of which are classified as persistent organic pollutants. This study highlights the need to continue adopting sustainable agricultural practices and raising farmers' awareness of the risks associated with the safe use of pesticides in order to preserve soil quality and public health in OPIB rice growing areas.
VL - 9
IS - 2
ER -
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