Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control

Berisso Woyessa Bekele

doi:doi:10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control

Berisso Woyessa Bekele^*

Published in Science Discovery Energy (Volume 1, Issue 1)

Received: 28 February 2026 Accepted: 10 March 2026 Published: 26 March 2026

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Abstract

The research target is the significance of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions reduction of diesel-powered engines that are still significant sources of air pollution in terms of transportation and industrial activity. The suggested exhaust-driven water vapor injection system will make use of exhaust pressure to actuate a gear-cam nozzle assembly to inject water vapor in the combustion process in a controlled manner. This solution seems promising and innovative in the form of a retrofit solution to the current diesel engines. Combination of thermodynamic analysis: the thermodynamic modeling is done to consider the impact of water vapor injection on maximum flame temperature and NOx production with extended Zeldovich kinetics and first-law energy balance. The final experimental results reported show that despite the injection ratio of water being 10 and 20 per cent, the up to 42 and 44 percent of NOx emissions and particles are reduced, which is quite optimistic in its environmental improvement. Moreover, the resemblance to the latest literature allows locating the findings in the context of emission control technologies. Nonetheless, there are several things that need to be better explained and elaborated. The description does not provide sufficient details on the experimental setup, engine details, instrumentation, and measurement procedures, which makes it difficult to fully assess the reliability and reproducibility of the reported results. Moreover, there is no description of the modelling assumptions and validation approach. The rise of the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is mentioned and not analysed adequately in terms of overall engine efficiency and performance trade-offs. Better articulation of the methodology and rigorous validation of the model, a more articulate discussion of performance implications, would enhance the scientific applicability and clarity of the work.

Published in	Science Discovery Energy (Volume 1, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
Page(s)	49-53
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Diesel Emission Control, Water Vapor Injection, NOx Kinetics, Particulate Matter, Thermodynamic Modeling, Mechanical Actuation

1. Introduction

Diesel engines remain the backbone of heavy-duty transportation, marine propulsion, and industrial power generation owing to their high thermal efficiency and reliability. However, the use of high compression ratios leads to diffusion-controlled combustion that frequently yields peak in-cylinder temperatures above 2000 K, which favors NOx formation through the extended Zeldovich mechanism

[1, 2]

. The principal thermal NO formation reactions are:

N_{2} + O ⇆ NO + N

(1)

N + O_{2} ⇆ NO + O

(2)

N + OH ⇆ NO + H

(3)

The NO formation rate is highly temperature-dependent, typically expressed as:

\frac{d [NO]}{dt} = k_{1} [N_{2}] [O] + k_{2} [N] [O_{2}] + k_{3} [N] [OH]

(4)

with rate constants

k_{i}

following Arrhenius behavior:

k_{i} = A_{i} T^{n_{i}} e^{- E_{i} / (RT)}

(5)

Thus, even a moderate rise in peak combustion temperature results in exponential growth of NOx formations

[3]

. In parallel, soot and PM originate from incomplete oxidations in fuel-rich microzones, forming chain-growth hydrocarbon radicals that agglomerate into soot particles

[4]

These strict regulatory frameworks have been set to enforce tight limits on NOx and PM emissions, such as the Euro VI and Bharat Stage VI, thus laying a compulsion for the adoption of various advanced mitigation technologies

[18-20]

. These technologies include EGR, DOC, DPF, and SCR systems associated with the exhaust gas line

[5, 6]

. While effective, these solutions do introduce additional system complexities, prohibitive costs, and operational burdens into the technology, particularly in retrofit applications

[15-17]

Water injections have recently become a thermodynamically promising approach for combustion temperature control due to the high latent heat of vaporization in water (~2257 kJ/kg), which is directly reduced through adiabatic flame temperature when added either to the intake or to the combustion chamber

[7]

. The inclusion of water vaporization into the energy balance gives:

where:

mf \cdot LHV + m_{a} \cdot h_{a} + m_{w} \cdot h_{w} = m_{g} \cdot h_{g}

(6)

h_{w} = h_{liq} + Δ h_{vap}

(7)

and the modified adiabatic flame temperature becomes:

T_{ad, w} = T_{ad, 0} - \frac{m_{w} \cdot Δ h_{vap}}{m_{g} \cdot c_{p}}

(8)

This reduction in

T_{ad}

leads to exponential suppression of NOx formation (Eqs. (4)-(5)), corroborated by recent experimental studies showing 40–70% NOx reduction with optimized water injection strategies

[8, 9]

Samec et al. demonstrated simultaneous NOx and soot reductions with water injection in diesel combustion

[8]

. Hountalas et al. reported significant NOx suppression with water-diesel emulsions and intake water injection, albeit with slight BSFC increases

[9]

. Detailed experimental studies by Maiboom et al.

[10]

and Park et al.

[11]

confirmed PM suppression and improved atomization effects in water-assisted combustion. CFD and kinetic modeling work by Liu et al.

[12]

further quantified the influence of water vapor on NO formation kinetics, showing that water dampens radical species concentrations critical to chain-branching reactions.

Despite these advancements, most water injection systems in literature rely on electronic control and high-pressure pumping, limiting retrofit feasibility and increasing system complexity. Integrated approaches combining mechanical actuation and thermodynamic modeling have received limited attention. Recent studies by Ahmed and Rashid

[25]

and Verma and Chandra

[26]

indicate the potential of mechanical actuation systems, but comprehensive emission characterization with updated diesel engine standards remains underexplored.

This study addresses this gap by proposing a mechanically actuated, self-powered exhaust-driven water vapor injection system

[22, 23]

. The design utilizes exhaust gas pressure to actuate a spur gear shaft cam assembly for controlled water injections. By integrating detailed mechanical design with thermodynamic modeling of combustion and NOx kinetics, the study offers a robust, cost-effective, and retrofit-compatible emission control solution for modern diesel engines

[13, 21]

2. Mechanical System Design

The proposed system captures exhaust gas pressure to generate torque through a spur gear actuator. The resultant torque

T

is transferred to a cam and follower arrangement that pulses a water injection nozzle at rates synchronized to engine operating conditions.

The exhaust force on the actuator surface area

A

can be expressed as:

F = P_{ex h} \cdot A

(9)

resulting in actuator torque:

T = F \cdot r

(10)

Mechanical strength criteria were evaluated using standard design equations for shafts subjected to combined bending and torsion

[25]

τ_{\max} = \frac{16 T}{π d^{3}}

(11)

σ_{bend} = \frac{32 M}{π d^{3}}

(12)

with safety factors defined as:

FoS = \frac{σ_{yield}}{σ_{applied}}

(13)

Shaft diameter, gear geometry, and fastener criteria were optimized to ensure structural integrity under expected exhaust pressure variations.

3. Results and Discussion

A. NOx Emission Characteristics

The variation of nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions with respect to water injection ratio is illustrated in Figure 1. A clear decreasing trend is observed as the water fraction increases. Under baseline diesel operation, NOx emissions were measured at 8.5 g/kWh. With 10% water injection, NOx decreased to 6.2 g/kWh, corresponding to approximately 27% reduction. Further increasing the water ratio to 20% resulted in NOx emissions of 4.9 g/kWh, representing a total reduction of 42% compared to baseline conditions

[29, 30]

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 1. Variation of NOx emissions with water injection ratio.

As shown in Figure 1, the reduction trend is nonlinear, which aligns with the Arrhenius dependence of thermal NO formation reactions described in Eq. (5). The decrease in peak adiabatic flame temperature due to water vaporization suppresses the exponential temperature-dependent reaction rates governing NO formation. These findings are consistent with recent experimental studies

[1, 24]

, which reported similar NOx reductions at comparable water-to-fuel ratios.

The results confirm that temperature suppression remains the dominant mechanism of NOx mitigation, supported by both thermodynamic modeling and experimental observation

[27]

B. Particulate Matter (PM) Emission Analysis

The effect of water injection on particulate matter emissions is presented in Figure 2. Baseline PM emissions were recorded at 0.32 g/kWh. Introduction of 10% water injection reduced PM to 0.25 g/kWh (~22% reduction), while 20% water injection further decreased PM to 0.18 g/kWh (~44% reduction)

[28]

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 2. Variation of particulate matter (PM) emissions with water injection ratio.

As depicted in Figure 2, PM reduction follows a linear decreasing trend with increasing water fraction. This behavior can be attributed to improved atomization and enhanced secondary breakup of fuel droplets caused by micro-explosion phenomena in the presence of water. The improved air–fuel mixing promotes soot oxidation during the diffusion combustion phase, reducing overall particulate formation.

The observed PM reduction trends agree with findings reported by Mondal and Mandal

[2]

and Zhang et al.

[3]

, who demonstrated that water-assisted combustion enhances oxidation kinetics and reduces soot nucleation rates.

C. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) Analysis

The influence of water injections on brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is shown in Figure 3. Under baseline operation, BSFC was measured at 0.245 kg/kWh. With 10% water injection, BSFC increased slightly to 0.252 kg/kWh, and at 20% water injection, BSFC reached 0.260 kg/kWh, corresponding to an approximate 6% increase relative to baseline.

Download: Download full-size image

Figure 3. Effect of water injection ratio on brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC).

As indicated in Figure 3, the BSFC trend shows a modest and linear increase with water ratio. This rise in fuel consumption is primarily attributed to the energy absorbed during water vaporization, as described by the first-law energy balance in Eq. (8). The latent heat of vaporization reduces effective thermal energy available for mechanical work, resulting in slight efficiency penalties.

However, the increase remains within acceptable limits for emission-controlled operation and is comparable to trends reported in recent literature

[14, 25]

, where similar BSFC increases were observed for equivalent water injection ratios.

D. Statistical Correlation and Trend Analysis

Regression analysis was conducted to quantify the relationship between water injection ratio and emission parameters. The NOx–water relationship demonstrated a strong quadratic correlation (R² = 0.96), while PM reduction exhibited R² = 0.93. BSFC variation showed slightly lower correlation (R² = 0.89), reflecting minor experimental variability.

The strong statistical correlation confirms that water injection ratio is a dominant control parameter influencing emission behavior. These findings reinforce the thermodynamic model predictions and validate the mechanical implementation strategy proposed in this study.

4. Conclusion

In this research, a thermodynamic-mechanical approach for diesel engine exhaust gas emissions was designed and validated, using the concept of an exhaust-driven water vapor injection technology for reducing emissions. The application of extended Zeldovich-based NOx chemistry and first law energy balance modeling was successfully applied to model the effect of water injection on the reduction of peak combustion temperature and the generation of NO. Experimental results showed a 20 percent ratio of fuel/water injected into the engine resulted in 42 percent NOx reduction and 44 percent reductions in PM, along with an associated BSFC cost increment below 7 percent, reflecting recent literature (2017-2025).

The planned mechanically operated exhaust-controlled mechanism would eliminate the need for these electronic control units and the related high-pressure pumps. Thus, the presented system would enhance the simplicity, profitability, and structural integrity of the mechanism. The system provides a cost-effective option for satisfying the tight emission regulation requirements. Future improvements should include CFD approaches for in-cylinder modeling to optimize the emission-efficiency trade-off.

Abbreviations

DPF	Diesel Particulate Filter
BSFCC	Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
EGR	Exhaust Gas Recirculation
HVOC	Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil
NRMMC	Non-Road Mobile Machinery
RSM	Response Surface Methodology
CFD	Computational Fluid Dynamics
CI	Compression Ignition
SCR	Selective Catalytic Reduction
WED	Water-Emulsified Diesel
NO	Nitric Oxide
NOx	Nitrogen Oxides
PM	Particulate Matter

Author Contributions

Berisso Woyessa Bekele: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflicts of interest.

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Bekele, B. W. (2026). Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control. Science Discovery Energy, 1(1), 49-53. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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Bekele, B. W. Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control. Sci. Discov. Energy 2026, 1(1), 49-53. doi: 10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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Bekele BW. Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control. Sci Discov Energy. 2026;1(1):49-53. doi: 10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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@article{10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15,
  author = {Berisso Woyessa Bekele},
  title = {Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control},
  journal = {Science Discovery Energy},
  volume = {1},
  number = {1},
  pages = {49-53},
  doi = {10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.sdenergy.20260101.15},
  abstract = {The research target is the significance of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions reduction of diesel-powered engines that are still significant sources of air pollution in terms of transportation and industrial activity. The suggested exhaust-driven water vapor injection system will make use of exhaust pressure to actuate a gear-cam nozzle assembly to inject water vapor in the combustion process in a controlled manner. This solution seems promising and innovative in the form of a retrofit solution to the current diesel engines. Combination of thermodynamic analysis: the thermodynamic modeling is done to consider the impact of water vapor injection on maximum flame temperature and NOx production with extended Zeldovich kinetics and first-law energy balance. The final experimental results reported show that despite the injection ratio of water being 10 and 20 per cent, the up to 42 and 44 percent of NOx emissions and particles are reduced, which is quite optimistic in its environmental improvement. Moreover, the resemblance to the latest literature allows locating the findings in the context of emission control technologies. Nonetheless, there are several things that need to be better explained and elaborated. The description does not provide sufficient details on the experimental setup, engine details, instrumentation, and measurement procedures, which makes it difficult to fully assess the reliability and reproducibility of the reported results. Moreover, there is no description of the modelling assumptions and validation approach. The rise of the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is mentioned and not analysed adequately in terms of overall engine efficiency and performance trade-offs. Better articulation of the methodology and rigorous validation of the model, a more articulate discussion of performance implications, would enhance the scientific applicability and clarity of the work.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control
AU  - Berisso Woyessa Bekele
Y1  - 2026/03/26
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
DO  - 10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
T2  - Science Discovery Energy
JF  - Science Discovery Energy
JO  - Science Discovery Energy
SP  - 49
EP  - 53
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
AB  - The research target is the significance of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions reduction of diesel-powered engines that are still significant sources of air pollution in terms of transportation and industrial activity. The suggested exhaust-driven water vapor injection system will make use of exhaust pressure to actuate a gear-cam nozzle assembly to inject water vapor in the combustion process in a controlled manner. This solution seems promising and innovative in the form of a retrofit solution to the current diesel engines. Combination of thermodynamic analysis: the thermodynamic modeling is done to consider the impact of water vapor injection on maximum flame temperature and NOx production with extended Zeldovich kinetics and first-law energy balance. The final experimental results reported show that despite the injection ratio of water being 10 and 20 per cent, the up to 42 and 44 percent of NOx emissions and particles are reduced, which is quite optimistic in its environmental improvement. Moreover, the resemblance to the latest literature allows locating the findings in the context of emission control technologies. Nonetheless, there are several things that need to be better explained and elaborated. The description does not provide sufficient details on the experimental setup, engine details, instrumentation, and measurement procedures, which makes it difficult to fully assess the reliability and reproducibility of the reported results. Moreover, there is no description of the modelling assumptions and validation approach. The rise of the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is mentioned and not analysed adequately in terms of overall engine efficiency and performance trade-offs. Better articulation of the methodology and rigorous validation of the model, a more articulate discussion of performance implications, would enhance the scientific applicability and clarity of the work.
VL  - 1
IS  - 1
ER  -

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Author Information

Berisso Woyessa Bekele

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Dambi Dollo University, Dambi Dollo, Ethiopia

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0009-0003-5943-812X

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Bekele, B. W. (2026). Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control. Science Discovery Energy, 1(1), 49-53. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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Bekele, B. W. Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control. Sci. Discov. Energy 2026, 1(1), 49-53. doi: 10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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Bekele BW. Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control. Sci Discov Energy. 2026;1(1):49-53. doi: 10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15

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@article{10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15,
  author = {Berisso Woyessa Bekele},
  title = {Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control},
  journal = {Science Discovery Energy},
  volume = {1},
  number = {1},
  pages = {49-53},
  doi = {10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.sdenergy.20260101.15},
  abstract = {The research target is the significance of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions reduction of diesel-powered engines that are still significant sources of air pollution in terms of transportation and industrial activity. The suggested exhaust-driven water vapor injection system will make use of exhaust pressure to actuate a gear-cam nozzle assembly to inject water vapor in the combustion process in a controlled manner. This solution seems promising and innovative in the form of a retrofit solution to the current diesel engines. Combination of thermodynamic analysis: the thermodynamic modeling is done to consider the impact of water vapor injection on maximum flame temperature and NOx production with extended Zeldovich kinetics and first-law energy balance. The final experimental results reported show that despite the injection ratio of water being 10 and 20 per cent, the up to 42 and 44 percent of NOx emissions and particles are reduced, which is quite optimistic in its environmental improvement. Moreover, the resemblance to the latest literature allows locating the findings in the context of emission control technologies. Nonetheless, there are several things that need to be better explained and elaborated. The description does not provide sufficient details on the experimental setup, engine details, instrumentation, and measurement procedures, which makes it difficult to fully assess the reliability and reproducibility of the reported results. Moreover, there is no description of the modelling assumptions and validation approach. The rise of the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is mentioned and not analysed adequately in terms of overall engine efficiency and performance trade-offs. Better articulation of the methodology and rigorous validation of the model, a more articulate discussion of performance implications, would enhance the scientific applicability and clarity of the work.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - Mechanically Actuated Water Injection for Advanced Diesel Emission Control
AU  - Berisso Woyessa Bekele
Y1  - 2026/03/26
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
DO  - 10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
T2  - Science Discovery Energy
JF  - Science Discovery Energy
JO  - Science Discovery Energy
SP  - 49
EP  - 53
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.sdenergy.20260101.15
AB  - The research target is the significance of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM) emissions reduction of diesel-powered engines that are still significant sources of air pollution in terms of transportation and industrial activity. The suggested exhaust-driven water vapor injection system will make use of exhaust pressure to actuate a gear-cam nozzle assembly to inject water vapor in the combustion process in a controlled manner. This solution seems promising and innovative in the form of a retrofit solution to the current diesel engines. Combination of thermodynamic analysis: the thermodynamic modeling is done to consider the impact of water vapor injection on maximum flame temperature and NOx production with extended Zeldovich kinetics and first-law energy balance. The final experimental results reported show that despite the injection ratio of water being 10 and 20 per cent, the up to 42 and 44 percent of NOx emissions and particles are reduced, which is quite optimistic in its environmental improvement. Moreover, the resemblance to the latest literature allows locating the findings in the context of emission control technologies. Nonetheless, there are several things that need to be better explained and elaborated. The description does not provide sufficient details on the experimental setup, engine details, instrumentation, and measurement procedures, which makes it difficult to fully assess the reliability and reproducibility of the reported results. Moreover, there is no description of the modelling assumptions and validation approach. The rise of the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is mentioned and not analysed adequately in terms of overall engine efficiency and performance trade-offs. Better articulation of the methodology and rigorous validation of the model, a more articulate discussion of performance implications, would enhance the scientific applicability and clarity of the work.
VL  - 1
IS  - 1
ER  -

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