Abstract
Crises such as natural disasters, financial instability, and pandemics pose significant challenges to government institutions, impacting their performance and resilience. In response, virtual leadership has emerged as a critical approach to ensuring sustainability and adaptability. This study examines the effectiveness of virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises, assessing key determinants including communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability, psychological and social support, and technological infrastructure. Additionally, it analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with virtual leadership and proposes strategies for improvement. A quantitative analytical approach was adopted, utilizing survey data collected from 370 supervisory employees in Palestinian government institutions between August 12 and September 18, 2024. Findings indicate that the overall effectiveness of virtual leadership in these institutions reached 67.4%, compared to 77% in U.S. federal agencies and 80% among British government employees working remotely during the pandemic. Among leadership dimensions, communication was the most effective (72.1%), followed by decision-making (67.4%) and adaptability (67.2%), while psychological and social support scored the lowest (61.1%). The study highlights the critical role of effective virtual communication in enhancing leadership performance and collaboration. However, challenges such as misunderstandings in senior management meetings necessitate improved communication channels. Decision-making effectiveness reflects the ability to respond swiftly to challenges, though technical issues remain a barrier, requiring better strategic decision-making processes. Trust and transparency between management and employees also need strengthening. The study recommends improving virtual communication through targeted training and advanced tools, ensuring resource availability for high-quality decision-making, and fostering employee engagement in decision processes to build trust. Additionally, continuous performance evaluation and training on virtual work adaptation are essential to enhancing overall effectiveness.
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Published in
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Journal of Business and Economic Development (Volume 10, Issue 3)
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DOI
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10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
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Page(s)
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114-134 |
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Creative Commons
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This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Copyright
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Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group
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Keywords
Virtual Leadership, Crises, Palestinian Government Institutions
1. Introduction
1.1. Overview
Natural disasters, financial crises, and pandemics are among the most significant challenges affecting countries and institutions, weakening their structures and performance and threatening their survival, especially with the strong interconnection between institutions and businesses worldwide. This leads to the spread of crises across borders and institutions. The ability of organizations to respond to crises varies based on the nature of the crisis, the surrounding environment, and the size of the organization, with their responses relying on adaptability, flexibility, and speed of response. The impacts of crises can range from significant losses to limited effects due to organizational resilience. Crisis preparedness is the state of organizations' readiness to anticipate and effectively address internal or external conditions, as organizations lacking sufficient awareness and preparedness to face crises may experience organizational contraction. Therefore, organizations are encouraged to adopt a crisis management approach that focuses on avoiding crises and leveraging available opportunities.
In light of the modern challenges posed by crises to various government institutions, virtual leadership has become an indispensable phenomenon for achieving performance sustainability and adapting to rapid changes. Virtual leadership embodies a flexible and innovative management approach characterized by the ability to adapt to harsh and changing conditions, making it a vital tool in managing major crises such as health or economic crises. Government institutions, due to their public responsibilities and duties, are particularly susceptible to multiple crisis challenges. However, the rapid adoption of technology and the shift to remote work represent a new challenge and an opportunity to enhance resilience and effective responses to future crises. By utilizing digital tools and virtual communication, leaders in government institutions can enhance interaction and coordination among teams and stimulate innovation in solutions. Palestinian government institutions faced enormous challenges regarding sustainability and adaptability amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The crisis was a major turning point, necessitating leaders and managers in these government institutions to adopt new strategies, with virtual leadership emerging as a fundamental tool for interaction and coordination among teams under lockdown and social distancing, a previously unfamiliar practice in the traditional Palestinian work environment. Institutions extensively used technology to facilitate remote work and ensure business continuity, leading to the involvement of employees and managers in decision-making processes across geographical boundaries.
In the Palestinian context, public sector institutions have faced ongoing challenges and crises at both internal and global levels since the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in 1994. Political, economic, and social crises have affected the performance of Palestinian government institutions and their ability to lead during crises. Therefore, the Palestinian government must work to provide tools for managing government institutions during crises.
1.2. Problem Statement
The study aims to enrich the academic and practical understanding of how government officials adapt to the exceptional challenges posed by crises by analyzing how virtual leadership is applied in managing government institutions during crises. It will leverage the experience of Palestinian government institutions during the COVID-19 pandemic. The problem of the study lies in how crises affect leadership styles and performance in government institutions and the knowledge gap is represented by the lack of studies addressing the challenges and benefits of virtual leadership in the context of government institutions, especially in conflict and crisis areas like Palestine during the COVID-19 pandemic.
1.3. Importance of the Study
When discussing scientific research on virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises, several important research aspects emerge that deserve study:
(1) Highlighting the effectiveness of virtual leadership in crisis management within Palestinian government institutions, contributing to identifying gaps and opportunities to improve institutional performance in emergency conditions.
(2) The research aids in understanding how to ensure the continuity of essential government services during crises, where adopting virtual leadership can be a sustainable solution to prevent the interruption of government work.
(3) The research provides an opportunity to study the challenges faced by government institutions in transitioning to virtual leadership, including issues related to technological infrastructure, organizational culture, and staff training.
(4) The research can focus on the social and psychological impacts of virtual leadership on government employees, including stress levels, motivation to work, and how to maintain morale in a virtual work environment.
(5) By studying virtual leadership, the research can contribute to developing robust strategies and plans for crisis management that rely on modern technology and ensure effective and rapid responses to various risks.
1.4. Objectives of the Study
(1) To identify the level of effectiveness of virtual leadership during crises in Palestinian government institutions.
(2) To assess the effectiveness of key determinants of virtual leadership (communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability and flexibility, psychological and social support, technology and infrastructure) in a virtual environment during crises and their role in enhancing virtual leadership effectiveness.
(3) To analyze the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the reality of virtual leadership in government institutions during crises.
(4) To analyze the relationship between the key determinants of virtual leadership (communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability and flexibility, psychological and social support, technology and infrastructure).
(5) To propose strategies for government institutions regarding virtual leadership during crises.
1.5. Study Main Questions
(1) What is the level of effectiveness of virtual leadership during crises in Palestinian government institutions?
(2) What is the level of effectiveness of the key determinants of virtual leadership (communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability and flexibility, psychological and social support, technology and infrastructure) in a virtual environment during crises, and how do they enhance virtual leadership effectiveness?
(3) What are the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the reality of virtual leadership in government institutions during crises?
(4) What is the relationship between the key determinants of virtual leadership (communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability and flexibility, psychological and social support, technology and infrastructure)?
(5) What are the proposed strategies for government institutions regarding virtual leadership during crises?
2. Crisis Management in Government Institutions
2.1. Overview
In public administration or the field of public policy, crisis management receives little attention, either in academic or professional circles (Schneider, 1995). Traditional public administration focuses only on planned and programmed activities, meaning those that have gone through lengthy stages and procedures for public policy formulation. This process creates a general impression that public administration is a science centered on organizational routines and bureaucracy. However, the government's most challenging role is not in controlling these routines but in performing well when tested in crises (Farazmand, 2007). There are numerous stories linking government failures in crisis management. At the same time, victims rely heavily on government procedures during crises, as they often believe that the government is the most responsible institution for managing the crisis (Boin, 2005). Nevertheless, literature on crisis management in the public sector is very limited.
The working environment in government institutions has undergone radical changes recently. Government activities have become more interactive at the international level and more competitive than in the past. This transformation is attributed to the rapid advancement in information and communication technology, making functions within these institutions more dynamic and diverse. As a result, the structures, systems, and processes of government institutions have improved to become more adaptable and resilient to these changes. With the accelerating technological developments, there has been a growing trend toward forming virtual work teams as a fundamental unit in organizational structure. Many government institutions have now transitioned from traditional teamwork to virtual teamwork.
The concept of virtual work is not new; it has been used through communication technologies for many years. However, the virtual environment within government institutions has not yet received sufficient attention and is often seen as a temporary solution when direct communication is impossible. With the increasing pace of globalization and the influx of youth into the public sector, interest in the virtual environment has become essential for improving performance quality. Thanks to technological advancements, government institutions are increasingly relying on virtual teams to achieve their goals and objectives. However, leading these teams presents a significant challenge, as the literature on leading virtual teams in the private sector may not directly apply to the governmental context. In the current era, most government institutions operate in virtual work environments, either fully or partially, especially in countries with advanced technological infrastructure. Despite the ease of establishing a virtual work environment due to available infrastructure and software, effective leadership in such an environment remains an ongoing challenge. This research reviews the concept of virtual leadership by examining the literature on the subject, which will help leaders in government institutions better understand virtual work environments, ultimately enhancing team performance.
2.2. Concept of Crisis
A crisis is a critical and decisive moment concerning the fate of the administrative entity that experiences it. It represents a problem that poses a severe difficulty for decision-makers, leaving them in a state of great confusion where any decision taken falls within a circle of uncertainty, lack of knowledge, and the entanglement of causes with results, along with the continuous aftermath that increases the degree of uncertainty regarding what may result from the crisis
| [1] | Jadallah, M. (2010). Crisis Management. Osama Publishing and Distribution, p. 6. |
[1]
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Crises are defined as "unexpected events that expose organizations or nations to significant risk, necessitating a swift and effective response to mitigate their negative impacts." Crises can be natural, such as earthquakes and floods, or human-made, such as economic and political crises. Dealing with crises requires well-prepared plans and prior preparations to alleviate their effects and recover from them
| [2] | Younes, T. (2010). Introduction to Crisis and Disaster Management. Al-Manhal Library. |
[2]
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In another definition, a crisis is a sudden deviation from normal behavior; it entails a series of reactions that lead to the emergence of an unexpected situation involving a direct threat to the core values or interests of the state, necessitating quick decisions in a tight timeframe and under uncertainty, to prevent the crisis from escalating
| [3] | Barton, L. (1993). Crisis in Organizations: Managing & Communicating in the Heat of Chaos. Southwestern, U.S.A., p. 2. |
[3]
. A crisis is a disruption that materially affects the entire system and threatens the main assumptions on which this system is based, often characterized by elements of surprise, time constraints, and lack of information, in addition to factors of material and human threat
| [4] | Abdul Hamid, R. (2000). The Role of Leadership in Decision-Making During Crises. Al-Iman Press, p. 26. |
[4]
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The term crisis management is strongly associated with public administration. Crisis management is a purposeful activity aimed at researching and obtaining the necessary information that enables management to anticipate the places and directions of expected crises and prepare the appropriate environment to address them by taking the necessary measures to control the anticipated crisis and eliminate it or alter its trajectory for the organization
| [5] | Bundy, J. (2017). Crises and Crisis Management Integration. Journal of Management, Arizona State University, p. 2. |
[5]
. Undoubtedly, crisis management is both a science and an art. However, from a practical perspective, it leans more toward art, as it relies on the talent of leadership, which cannot be acquired solely through knowledge. Crisis management aims to change the status quo while avoiding conflict; if the crisis escalates to conflict, the management is considered unsuccessful
| [6] | Hoidi, A. (1993). The Art of Arab Crisis Management in Light of the Current Global System. Al-Mustaqbal Al-Arabi, pp. 13-15. |
[6]
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3. Virtual Leadership
3.1. Concepts
Leadership can be understood as "the ability to determine what needs to be done and then inspire others to want to do it." A leader, therefore, can be defined as "a person with the ability to make others do what they don’t want to do and enjoy it
." Generally, virtual work is often perceived as something that does not exist in reality. According to many managers, personal interaction is only achieved through face-to-face meetings. Although there is an extensive amount of literature and books on virtual work environments, they have not completely alleviated concerns about virtual work, which is often still seen as something intangible with limited benefits, due to its strong association with technology. Interestingly, the term "virtual" first appeared in the late 14
th century, meaning, "having an effect through virtues or physical capabilities"
| [8] | Mehtab, K., Rehman, A., Ishfaq, S., & Jamil, R. A. (2017). "Virtual Leadership: A Review Paper." Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 8(4-1), 183-193. https://doi.org/10.2478/mjss-2018-0089 |
[8]
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The situation created by the COVID-19 pandemic pushed or even forced, organizations to adopt virtual work. Although much has been written about this subject, many authors suggest that research on virtual leadership is still in its early stages. In reality, when the pandemic began, organizations and teams were not prepared to handle the implications and challenges of leading people virtually. According to findings, shared leadership is the most fitting style for virtual work needs, positively affecting the performance of virtual teams. Virtual environments, given the geographical dispersion and reliance on information and communication technology, require leaders and collaborators to maintain team cohesion and responsiveness despite the distance. This means that team members are aware of the goals to be achieved collectively; they have clear communication processes and interaction protocols enabling self-managed coordination; they know and trust each other enough to know who to contact, when, and how if needed; they are close enough to avoid isolation; and they have the autonomy to make timely decisions without waiting on a leader
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These considerations enhance communication, trust, and cohesion as key factors within the virtual context and shared leadership model, which promotes a collective, socially interactive process of shared responsibilities. In remote settings mediated by technology, virtual teams need to work as though they are in the same location. Direct supervision or a predetermined leadership style to oversee each individual would be highly impractical. Instead, authors emphasize leadership as a shared phenomenon, detached from a hierarchical position or single-person control. For this purpose, leaders should grant autonomy and adopt supportive roles, promoting trust, relationships among members, and team development
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Communication, a crucial element in teamwork, is adversely affected by information and communication technology mediation. Thus, leaders need to provide tools and develop skills to make interactions richer and smoother. A crucial aspect here is technology usage and adoption, as it facilitates team interactions. Similarly, communication helps build trust, which should focus on two aspects: recognition and personal satisfaction.
Through frequent and quality communication, each team member can feel that their work is valued and considered (recognition) and that they can meet challenges (personal satisfaction), knowing what is expected of them and receiving continuous feedback on their progress. Building trust is vital because, in a virtual context, leaders are not physically present to monitor everything, which requires a different governance approach, discarding predefined policies and processes in favor of guiding the team. Additionally, trust helps overcome communication and cultural barriers, fostering collaboration, knowledge sharing, and team cohesion. This cohesion, in turn, is essential for fostering close interactions among team members, both formal and informal; to enhance a virtual environment that resembles a real one. Cohesion strengthens trust within the team and enriches member interactions through effective communication
.
In virtual work environments, leadership should aim to develop a culture of collaborative and self-managed work, where leaders primarily focus on task delegation, role distribution, and establishing their roles as facilitators for the team.
The goal of leadership is to ensure the functioning and development of teams; however, in a virtual setting, as we have observed, this responsibility should not fall on one person alone: it is a shared responsibility among the team. Accordingly, considering that leadership, communication, trust, and cohesion should be viewed collectively and as part of a whole, the diagram below outlines four phases of leadership in virtual work environments. This model is proposed to help analyze and manage teams, and thus exercise leadership in virtual environments
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Figure 1. Key Factors and Actions for Leadership in Virtual Work Environments.
The Previous Diagram Outlines the Key Factors of Virtual Leadership in Four Phases: Diagnosis, Definition, Training, and Consolidation.
The first phase aims to understand the team's needs and readiness for leadership roles, revealing skills or knowledge requiring development. Team members should assess the available technology, its use, and their trust, communication, intellectual, and emotional connections. This can be achieved through group sessions, surveys, or individual and group interviews. Analyzing technology used to meet needs is crucial, as it underpins team interactions.
The second phase establishes core guidelines for team behavior. It involves defining leadership roles according to the responsibilities to be delegated, alongside communication and relationship-building protocols and structures. Additionally, the team's general objectives, activities, policies, and work guidelines should be established collaboratively. It's essential in this phase to agree on technology use, synchronous or asynchronous sessions, timing, language, and other aspects.
The third phase is dedicated to exercises that transform team habits and begin to embody the previous phase. Here, activities should be designed to reflect on and adopt collective leadership, shifting from hierarchical or traditional models to shared leadership. Practices encouraging active participation, dialogue, and equal treatment among team members should be strengthened. Such activities must be systematically planned, as building strong relationships takes longer in virtual contexts but can be achieved over time.
The final phase aims to establish new practices and develop team culture. Team members should create routines and habits that foster a self-leadership culture, emphasizing proactive values, critical thinking, and collaborative work. They must also maintain clear, respectful, and inclusive two-way communication routines and establish peer training and support systems, where each member is a leader in a specific area and a deputy leader in two or three others. Emphasis should also be placed on cultivating team culture and identity with shared responsibilities. Members may form work committees to present new issues and showcase collective problem-solving practices.
Finally, leadership should be viewed as an evolving process within a dynamic, multi-level system. Given individuals' active roles within organizations, each member can influence the team's direction and performance. Virtual work environments, despite all the challenges mentioned, offer leaders the possibility to step away from hierarchical, task-oriented systems and enter a more flexible, collective, relationship-focused approach. Thus, virtual leadership should be seen as a shared phenomenon focused on establishing a culture of collaborative, self-managed work.
In the literature on virtual leadership, various tables, and models can help assign weights to key elements based on their relative importance. These tools are commonly used in virtual leadership and business management research to assess the impact of each element on leadership and management in virtual work environments.
3.2. Key Pillars of Virtual Leadership During Crises
The Palestinian government institutions have faced unprecedented challenges during recent crises that affected their performance and management methods, necessitating the adoption of new leadership models suited to imposed changes. Under these circumstances, virtual leadership emerged as a primary option to ensure work continuity and achieve institutional goals. Virtual leadership is an administrative approach that relies on remote communication and technology use to manage teams and make decisions.
This study highlights the effectiveness level of virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises, focusing on a set of key pillars that have proven crucial in maintaining continuity and improving performance. These pillars serve as a framework for this study.
Figure 2. Study Model (Virtual Leadership Axes).
(1) Virtual Leadership and Communication During Crises:
Effective remote leadership is at the core of virtual leadership during crises. It is essential for leaders to communicate clearly and efficiently with their teams via virtual platforms to ensure the flow of information and tasks, preventing any misunderstandings that could affect institutional performance. Communication is the cornerstone of virtual leadership. In a virtual work environment, leaders must promote flexible and clear communication methods to maintain workflow. This requires the use of technological tools such as email, virtual meeting platforms (like Zoom and Microsoft Teams), and other communication channels. Messages should be clear and avoid ambiguity
| [10] | Borkowski, N., & Deckard, G. (2020). "Virtual Leadership During a Crisis." Journal of Healthcare Leadership, 2020(12), 67-72. |
[10]
.
(2) Decision-Making in a Virtual Environment During Crises:
Making decisions in a virtual environment during crises requires new tools and mechanisms, as leaders need accurate and up-to-date data, along with the ability to analyze information and make quick, effective decisions that align with the nature of the crisis. Virtual leadership faces additional challenges when it comes to making swift decisions. During crises, decisions are typically time-sensitive and require precise data. Virtual leaders must be capable of making sound decisions based on the available communication and technology
| [11] | Avolio, B. J., Kahai, S., & Dodge, G. E. (2021). "E-Leadership: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice." The Leadership Quarterly, 32(5), 101541. |
[11]
.
(3) Trust and Transparency in Virtual Work During Crises:
Trust and transparency are critical factors in ensuring the success of virtual work, especially during crises. This relationship relies on leaders’ ability to share information openly and without reservation, contributing to a collaborative and supportive work environment despite geographic distance. Building trust among team members is a significant challenge in virtual leadership. Virtual leaders need to foster a culture of trust through ongoing and transparent communication, ensuring that employees feel engaged in the organization’s decisions and strategic directions
| [12] | Jarvenpaa, S. L., & Leidner, D. E. (1999). "Communication and Trust in Global Virtual Teams." Organization Science, 10(6), 791-815. |
[12]
.
(4) Performance Management in a Virtual Environment During Crises:
Performance management in a virtual environment requires new mechanisms for evaluating and guiding employees. It is important to utilize technological tools to measure performance and provide timely feedback to ensure that institutional goals are met amid the challenges posed by the crisis. In a virtual environment, it is challenging leaders to monitor employee performance in the same way as in traditional settings. Therefore, it is essential to develop new performance management methods based on outcomes and achievements rather than time monitoring
| [13] | Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (2007). Leaders: Strategies for Taking Charge. Harper Business. |
[13]
.
(5) Adaptability and Flexibility During Crises:
The ability to adapt and be flexible is a fundamental trait of effective virtual leadership during crises. Both leaders and employees must be able to adjust to sudden changes and develop new strategies to ensure continuity of work.
(6) Psychological and Social Support for Employees During Crises:
Psychological and social support for employees during crises is a vital aspect of ensuring their well-being and sustaining productivity. Virtual leaders should provide the necessary support to enhance employees’ sense of psychological and social security, especially in remote work environments. Virtual leadership requires leaders to offer psychological and social support to team members, particularly during crises. Leaders should find innovative ways to support employees’ well-being and encourage their participation and interaction
| [14] | Bailey, D. E., & Kurland, N. B. (2002). "A Review of Telework Research: Findings, New Directions, and Lessons for the Study of Modern Work." Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(4), 383-400. |
[14]
.
(7) Technology and Infrastructure During Crises:
Technology and infrastructure play a crucial role in the success of virtual leadership. Organizations must be equipped with reliable and secure technological platforms that ensure continuity of work and facilitate communication and collaboration among virtual teams. Virtual leaders heavily rely on technological infrastructure to conduct business. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the available technology facilitates work rather than obstructs it. Investment should be made in tools that enhance remote team communication and management
| [15] | Duarte, D. L., & Snyder, N. T. (2011). Mastering Virtual Teams: Strategies, Tools, and Techniques That Succeed. John Wiley & Sons. |
[15]
.
3.3. Methodology for Measuring the Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership During Crises
Measuring the effectiveness of virtual leadership during crises requires a comprehensive methodology that focuses on several key areas affecting leadership performance in digital work environments. The data collection process involves developing a questionnaire that includes all seven aspects of virtual leadership. Using a five-point Likert scale, the effectiveness of each of the seven aspects of virtual leadership is measured.
Based on literature reviews, evaluating virtual leadership in times of crisis-especially in a context like Palestine, which faces challenges related to political, economic, and social crises-requires a different leadership approach. This approach places greater emphasis on certain aspects to ensure continuity of work and support for employees. To evaluate this, it is essential to measure the effectiveness of each of the seven aspects of virtual leadership and assign weights to each aspect. The distribution of weights among the virtual leadership aspects (communication, decision-making in a virtual environment, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability and flexibility, psychological and social support for employees, technology and infrastructure) follows these steps:
(1) Determining the Importance of Each Aspect:
Assessing the significance of each aspect in the context of virtual leadership. This importance can rely on previous literature, expert opinions, or the researcher’s own perspective.
1. Communication: Effective communication becomes increasingly important, especially in virtual environments. Leaders must communicate clearly and frequently to ensure that everyone understands the situation and directives. Consequently, this aspect may require a greater weight compared to normal times, estimated between 35% and 40%.
2. Decision-Making: The speed and flexibility of decision-making during crises necessitate leadership that relies on accurate information gathering and ongoing risk assessment. Given the increased importance during crises, swift and decisive decision-making could carry a weight of up to 25%.
3. Trust and Transparency: The dual importance of trust and transparency during crises is essential for maintaining employee morale and ensuring they feel that leaders provide information honestly. Therefore, this aspect may take a weight of 15% to 25% in a virtual work context during crises.
4. Performance Management: Adapting to the realities of crises may require performance management to be more flexible, as expectations and goals can change continuously. Thus, the weight for this aspect is similar to or less than the previous aspects, possibly ranging from 10% to 20%.
5. Adaptability and Flexibility: Leaders who demonstrate flexibility and the ability to quickly adjust their plans are more successful in these circumstances. Hence, this aspect may also receive a weight similar to or less than previous aspects, potentially ranging from 10% to 20%.
6. Psychological and Social Support: Supporting employees during crises is vital, as they face significant psychological and social pressures, making leaders' role in providing this support extremely important. This aspect may carry a weight of 5% to 10%.
7. Technology and Infrastructure: The importance of technology may increase, as it becomes the primary means of communication and coordination in the virtual environment. Consequently, this aspect may also weight 5% to 10%, ensuring that the virtual system can withstand shocks.
(2) Collecting Opinions from Experts or Participants:
1. The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) or Delphi Method can be used to gather expert or participant opinions on the importance of each aspect.
2. Experts or participants are asked to prioritize the aspects based on their significance in virtual leadership. Relative weights for each aspect are then calculated based on their responses.
(3) Statistical Analysis (Factor Analysis or Internal Consistency Check):
1. Use statistical analysis to determine whether the seven aspects are interrelated in a way that allows weight distribution based on the variance of the collected data.
2. Factor Analysis can be conducted to identify the most influential factors, with weights assigned based on the results of this analysis.
(4) Relative Distribution (Equal or Graduated Distribution Method):
1. Equal Distribution: An equal weight can be assigned to each aspect if they are all considered equally important. For example, with seven aspects, each would receive a weight of (100% ÷ 7) = 14.3%.
2. Graduated Distribution: If some aspects are deemed more important than others, a graduated distribution can be used.
(5) Regression Analysis:
Regression Analysis can be employed to determine the impact of each aspect on virtual leadership based on actual data. This analysis can help identify objective weights that reflect each aspect's influence on the outcome.
(6) Review and Adjustment:
1. After assigning weights, the questionnaire can be tested with a sample group of participants to analyze the effectiveness of the weight distribution.
2. Weights may need to be adjusted based on preliminary results and feedback.
It is crucial for these weights to be adaptable, as the importance of the aspects may change based on the nature of the crisis and the specific challenges faced by the organization. Therefore, there should be room for reassessing the weights when encountering new or changing crises. Based on the above methods for estimating weights, particularly through determining importance and statistical analysis methods, two scenarios for weight distribution were considered:
1) The First Scenario:
Equal Distribution: This scenario involves assigning equal weight to each aspect, with each receiving a weight of (100% ÷ 7) = 14.3%. The effectiveness level of virtual leadership during crises was calculated, with a normality test conducted on the effectiveness data, and variance analysis yielding acceptable statistical results. However, this scenario contradicts literature-indicating variability in the importance among aspects, thus leading to different weight distributions among the seven aspects.
2) The Second Scenario:
Determining the Importance of Each Aspect: Based on literature, the average weights for each aspect were calculated, resulting in the following weight distribution: communication (30%), decision-making (25%), trust and transparency (15%), performance management (10%), adaptability and flexibility (10%), and psychological and social support and technology and infrastructure (5% each). The effectiveness level of virtual leadership during crises was calculated, and normality testing and variance analysis were conducted, yielding acceptable statistical results. This scenario aligns with literature discussing the variability in importance among aspects, especially during crises, and was thus adopted for estimating the effectiveness of virtual leadership. A regression analysis was also conducted to confirm that this distribution is valid, and the analysis results supported this conclusion.
Figure 3. Distribution of Weights for the Dimensions of Virtual Leadership during Crises.
Table 1. Regression Analysis of the Effectiveness Level of Virtual Leadership during Crises with the Seven Dimensions of Virtual Leadership.
Model | Unstandardized Coefficients | Standardized Coefficients | t-test | Significance Level |
B | Standard Error | Beta |
Constant | 0.000 | 0.000 | | 0.000 | 1.000 |
Communication | 0.300 | 0.000 | 0.413 | 2.81E+08 | 0.000 |
Decision-Making | 0.250 | 0.000 | 0.261 | 1.85E+08 | 0.000 |
Trust and Transparency | 0.150 | 0.000 | 0.146 | 1.25E+08 | 0.000 |
Performance Management | 0.100 | 0.000 | 0.116 | 8.63E+07 | 0.000 |
Adaptability and Flexibility | 0.100 | 0.000 | 0.113 | 7.23E+07 | 0.000 |
Psychological and Social Support | 0.050 | 0.000 | 0.085 | 5.94E+07 | 0.000 |
Technology and Infrastructure | 0.050 | 0.000 | 0.063 | 5.10E+07 | 0.000 |
4. Methodology
4.1. Research Method
The study adopted a quantitative analytical approach, utilizing a set of statistical tools to analyze the data. Quantitative data were collected through a questionnaire distributed to a sample of employees in Palestinian governmental institutions. This questionnaire aims to measure the effectiveness of virtual leadership in government institutions during crises. After collecting the data, it was analyzed using advanced statistical techniques to provide an accurate picture of the effectiveness of virtual leadership during crises and to identify the factors influencing it. This approach helps in understanding the capacity of government institutions to lead during crises.
4.2. Study Tool
The study aims to measure the effectiveness of virtual leadership in governmental institutions during crises. To achieve this, a questionnaire was developed that addresses all relevant study variables. The questionnaire was developed based on a model created by the researcher after reviewing a range of related literature, study questions, and hypotheses. Its validity and reliability were confirmed.
The study tool (the questionnaire) consists of two main parts. The first section includes demographic data, gathering information about the name of the governmental institution, gender, age, educational attainment, and administrative level. This data helps in classifying and analyzing participants' responses based on their demographic and professional characteristics. The second section focuses on virtual leadership and includes seven main themes:
(1) Virtual leadership and communication during crises.
(2) Decision-making in a virtual environment during crises.
(3) Trust and transparency during virtual work in crises.
(4) Performance management in a virtual environment during crises.
(5) Adaptability and resilience during crises.
(6) Psychosocial support for employees during crises.
(7) Technology and infrastructure during crises.
The final theme, which does not fall under the virtual leadership themes, addresses recommendations and improvements following crises.
4.3. Study Population
Employees in supervisory positions in Palestinian governmental institutions during the year 2024.
4.4. Sample Size
A stratified sample was used, with a sample size of 374 government employees working in supervisory positions.
4.5. Data Collection
Data collection took place over the period from August 12, 2024, to September 18, 2024, through the following stages:
(1) The questionnaire was designed using Google Forms
.
(2) The link to the questionnaire was sent to 42 Palestinian governmental institutions via a direct message to the head of the institution.
(3) 375 completed questionnaires were obtained, and distributed across various sectors in governmental institutions.
4.6. Validity Testing of the Study Tool
(1) The questionnaire was subjected to content validity by presenting it to several specialists, and it was revised and finalized to ensure its validity.
(2) The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient was calculated after data collection was completed to ensure that the data from the 375 completed questionnaires were consistent. The value of the coefficient was 0.940 for 35 questions (i.e., for all axes), which is a high and statistically acceptable value.
4.7. Distribution of the Study Sample
The sample size of this study consisted of 375 employees in supervisory positions in Palestinian governmental institutions based on general information about them, distributed according to demographic characteristics as follows:
(1) 62.3% of the study sample are male, while 37.7% are female.
(2) 1.7% of the sample are aged 30 or younger, 19.9% are between 31-40 years old, while individuals in the age group of 41-50 years constitute the largest percentage at 54.1%, and finally, 24.2% of the sample are between 51-60 years old.
(3) 3.0% hold a diploma, 49.4% of the study sample hold a bachelor's degree, 1.3% hold a higher diploma, while 41.1% hold a master's degree, and 5.2% hold a doctorate.
(4) The sample was distributed according to administrative level, with 73.6% of the study sample being department heads and 26.4% being general directors or higher.
4.8. Statistical Tools and Processing
The statistical processing of all phases of preparing the study was conducted through several stages and procedures. First, the data file was extracted using Excel, then the data quality was examined and processed, and afterward, the data was analyzed, and the final results were extracted using SPSS.
5. Virtual Leadership in Palestinian Government Institutions During Crises
5.1. Effectiveness Level of Virtual Leadership During Crises
The study results regarding the effectiveness level of virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises, based on a sample of 375 participants, indicate that the average effectiveness rating for virtual leadership reached 3.37 on a scale of 1 to 5 (i.e., 67.4%), reflecting an average level leaning toward the positive. The median was 3.47, and the mode was 3.73, indicating that most ratings tended toward above-average levels. The standard error was low (0.03874), which reinforces confidence in the accuracy of the average estimate, indicating that the data is relatively homogeneous around this mean.
When comparing the effectiveness rating of virtual leadership in Palestine during the COVID-19 pandemic internationally, government institutions in various countries experienced diverse challenges in adopting virtual leadership models and remote work. These experiences demonstrated varying levels of adaptability to the new conditions. Below are some figures and statistics from different countries on how government institutions responded to these challenges:
Figure 4. The Level of Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership During Crises.
A study in the United States by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) on "COVID-19: Opportunities to Improve Federal Response" showed that 90% of federal agencies implemented remote work policies during crises, with 77% of employees in the U.S. reporting that their leadership managed the digital transition effectively during the crisis
. About 85% of German companies were satisfied with their transition to virtual work during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the United Kingdom, a report from the Cabinet Office titled "The Future of Work: Government's Response to COVID-19" indicated that 95% of British government employees worked from home during the peak of the pandemic, with 80% reporting they could work efficiently
. In India, a study by PwC revealed that 83% of Indian employees felt they could work effectively from home, though 56% of them reported facing challenges in achieving a work-life balance
.
5.2. Effectiveness Level of Virtual Leadership Aspects During Crises
The results showed that the highest effectiveness level was in communication in a virtual environment during crises, reaching 72.1%, followed by decision-making in a virtual environment during crises at 67.4%, and adaptability and flexibility during crises at 67.2%. Performance management achieved an effectiveness level of 64.1%, trust and transparency at 63.8%, while technology and infrastructure during crises reached 63.5%. Psychological and social support for employees was the least effective, with an effectiveness rate of 61.1%.
(1) Effectiveness Level of Communication in a Virtual Environment during Crises
The results indicate that virtual communication tools were generally effective, achieving a 74.3% effectiveness level for the question related to the virtual communication tools used within the organization. Additionally, the findings showed that these tools contributed to enhancing collaboration among different departments, with an effectiveness level of 75.5%. Furthermore, participants expressed a positive view of the effectiveness of virtual communication in maintaining workflow continuity, with an effectiveness level of 75.8%. However, virtual meetings with senior management were found to be less effective, reaching an effectiveness level of 68.1%. In terms of reducing misunderstandings and communication issues among teams, this aspect received the lowest rating, with an effectiveness level of 66.9%.
Figure 5. Level of Effectiveness of Communication in a Virtual Environment During Crises.
(2) Effectiveness of Decision-Making in a Virtual Environment during Crises
The data indicates that the virtual environment positively affected the speed of decision-making, with an effectiveness rate of 73.4%. However, results show that making strategic decisions proved more challenging in the virtual setting, with an effectiveness of 72.3%. Virtual leadership also facilitated informed decision-making based on available information during crises, achieving an effectiveness of 71.1%. On the other hand, technological challenges in the virtual environment negatively affected decision quality, receiving a relatively low effectiveness rate of 48.5%. Despite these challenges, findings reveal that decisions made in the virtual environment were largely aligned with the institution’s strategic objectives, with an effectiveness rate of 71.7%.
Figure 6. Effectiveness of Decision-Making in a Virtual Environment During Crises.
(3) Effectiveness of Trust and Transparency in Virtual Work during Crises
The results indicate that trust between management and employees was negatively impacted, with this area receiving a low effectiveness rating of 53.3%. However, it appears that management maintained reasonable transparency in sharing critical information during virtual work, achieving an effectiveness score of 67.1%. Trust in leadership decisions in the virtual environment scored an effectiveness rating of 67.8%, reflecting a moderate level of trust. Regarding challenges in accessing essential information, the findings revealed some difficulties, with this area scoring 63.5%. Finally, the results showed that the information exchanged between leadership and employees was generally accurate and timely, with an effectiveness rating of 67.0%.
Figure 7. The level of effectiveness in trust and transparency during virtual work in crises.
(4) Effectiveness of Performance Management in a Virtual Environment during Crises
The findings indicate that the performance evaluation process was generally effective and appropriate but remained at a moderate level, with an effectiveness rating of 61.2%. Additionally, virtual leadership provided regular feedback to improve performance, achieving an effectiveness score of 62.6%. Despite some challenges, respondents felt that their team’s overall performance was good, with this area scoring a high effectiveness rating of 73.2%, reflecting the team’s adaptability to the challenges of virtual work. However, employees experienced difficulties in tracking performance and task execution in the virtual environment, with an effectiveness score of 60.6%. Finally, results showed that the virtual environment contributed to enabling employees to achieve their goals efficiently, with an effectiveness rating of 63.0%.
Figure 8. Level of Effectiveness of Performance Management in a Virtual Environment During Crises.
(5) Effectiveness of Adaptability and Flexibility during Crises
The results indicate that leadership demonstrated flexibility in adapting to emergency conditions, with this area achieving an effectiveness rating of 69.3%. Virtual leadership also contributed to enhancing the organization’s adaptability to the pandemic’s demands, with an effectiveness score of 71.0%. Additionally, there was sufficient support from leadership to facilitate quick adaptation to the virtual work environment, achieving an effectiveness rating of 68.2%. However, respondents reported facing difficulties in adapting to the virtual work environment, which scored a lower effectiveness rating of 59.7%. Finally, virtual leadership aided in achieving a balance between work and personal life during crises, with an effectiveness rating of 67.6%.
Figure 9. The level of effectiveness of adaptability and flexibility during crises.
(6) Effectiveness of Psychological and Social Support for Employees during Crises
The results indicate that virtual leadership did not give sufficient attention to this area, as it received a low effectiveness rating of 57.6%. Participants also felt that leadership was somewhat capable of boosting team morale, with this area scoring an effectiveness rating of 61.6%. Similarly, strategies employed by leadership to foster team spirit were rated with the same effectiveness score. However, the results pointed to insufficient support from leadership to help employees cope with psychological stress, which received an effectiveness rating of 59.4%. Lastly, it was found that the virtual work environment contributed to improved team communication and mutual support during crises, achieving an effectiveness score of 65.0%.
Figure 10. The effectiveness level of psychological and social support for employees during crises.
(7) Effectiveness of Technology and Infrastructure during Crises
The dimension concerning support for technological infrastructure for virtual leadership received an effectiveness rating of 64.3%, indicating a good level of support. However, the results showed that technological challenges affected the efficiency of virtual leadership, scoring an effectiveness of 61.9%. Additionally, the data indicated that employees had consistent and quick access to essential technological systems for virtual work, with an effectiveness rating of 60.8%. Furthermore, technological infrastructure contributed to ensuring efficient continuity of work during crises, scoring an effectiveness of 65.5%. Lastly, necessary technical support was provided to enable effective use of virtual tools during crises, with an effectiveness rating of 65.1%.
Figure 11. The Level of Effectiveness of Technology and Infrastructure During Crises.
5.3. Correlation Between Dimensions of Virtual Leadership During Crises
The correlation analysis of virtual leadership dimensions indicates that communication plays a crucial role in enhancing the effectiveness of virtual leadership. A strong correlation exists between communication and decision-making, with a coefficient of 0.74. Communication also shows a moderate positive correlation with individuals’ trust in leadership (0.507), performance management (0.606), and adaptability and flexibility (0.651). Additionally, there is a positive correlation with psychological and social support (0.639).
Decision-making also correlates positively with multiple dimensions, showing a moderate correlation with trust and transparency (0.514), and a strong correlation with performance management (0.635) and adaptability and flexibility (0.621). It also has a positive correlation with psychological and social support (0.593). Trust and transparency play an important role in improving team performance, showing a moderate correlation with performance management (0.569). A strong correlation exists between trust, transparency, adaptability, and flexibility (0.614), though their relationship with psychological and social support is weaker (0.487).
The results show that performance management has a strong correlation with adaptability and flexibility (0.693), and a positive relationship with psychological and social support (0.610) as well as with technology and infrastructure (0.512). The analysis further highlights a strong correlation between adaptability and flexibility and psychological and social support (0.729), and a positive correlation with technology and infrastructure (0.617). Lastly, psychological and social support is positively correlated with technology and infrastructure (0.642).
The Relationship between Virtual Leadership Dimensions during Crises.
Table 2. The Relationship between Virtual Leadership Dimensions during Crises.
Dimensions | Communication | Decision-Making | Trust and Transparency | Performance Management | Adaptability and Flexibility | Psychological and Social Support | Technology and Infrastructure |
Communication | | 74% | 51% | 61% | 65% | 64% | 61% |
Decision-Making | 74% | | 51% | 64% | 62% | 59% | 53% |
Trust and Transparency | 51% | 51% | | 57% | 61% | 49% | 48% |
Performance Management | 61% | 64% | 57% | | 69% | 61% | 51% |
Adaptability and Flexibility | 65% | 62% | 61% | 69% | | 73% | 62% |
Psychological and Social Support | 64% | 59% | 49% | 61% | 73% | | 64% |
Technology and Infrastructure | 61% | 53% | 48% | 51% | 62% | 64% | |
Table 3. Correlation Analysis Between Virtual Leadership Dimensions during Crises.
Virtual Leadership Dimensions During Crises | Communication | Decision-Making | Trust and Transparency | Performance Management | Adaptability and Flexibility | Psychological and Social Support | Technology and Infrastructure |
Communication | Pearson Correlation | 1 | 0.740** | 0.507** | 0.606** | 0.651** | 0.639** | 0.609** |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
Decision-Making | Pearson Correlation | 0.740** | 1 | 0.514** | 0.635** | 0.621** | 0.593** | 0.533** |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
Trust and Transparency | Pearson Correlation | 0.507** | 0.514** | 1 | 0.569** | 0.614** | 0.487** | 0.475** |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
Performance Management | Pearson Correlation | 0.606** | 0.635** | 0.569** | 1 | 0.693** | 0.610** | 0.512** |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
Adaptability and Flexibility | Pearson Correlation | 0.651** | 0.621** | 0.614** | 0.693** | 1 | 0.729** | 0.617** |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | | 0.000 | 0.000 |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
Psychological and Social Support | Pearson Correlation | 0.639** | 0.593** | 0.487** | 0.610** | 0.729** | 1 | 0.642** |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | | 0.000 |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
Technology and Infrastructure | Pearson Correlation | 0.609** | 0.533** | 0.475** | 0.512** | 0.617** | 0.642** | 1 |
Sig0. (2-tailed) | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | 0.000 | |
N | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 | 375 |
5.4. Proposed Recommendations in the Study Questionnaire on Virtual Leadership During Crises
The researcher proposed a set of recommendations through the questionnaire to enhance the effectiveness of virtual leadership in addressing future crises. The first recommendation, which calls for improving the effectiveness of virtual leadership, received a percentage of 81.0%, indicating the importance of this improvement. The results also showed that virtual leadership could serve as a sustainable model for government institutions after the crisis, with this recommendation receiving a percentage of 74.3%.
Furthermore, participants recommended that the institution should enhance its capabilities in virtual leadership to confront potential future crises, with this recommendation receiving a percentage of 83.2%. They also indicated that there are important lessons to be learned for improving virtual leadership in the future, with this recommendation achieving the highest percentage of 85.4%. Finally, participants confirmed that the virtual environment contributed to the development of new skills that can be used sustainably after the pandemic, with this recommendation receiving a percentage of 79.8%.
Figure 12. Proposed Recommendations in the Study Questionnaire on Virtual Leadership during Crises.
5.5. SWOT Analysis of Virtual Leadership in Government Institutions During Crises
Based on the study's results, a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) was conducted for virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises. The analysis indicates that virtual leadership in these institutions has positive strengths but faces challenges that need addressing.
It is important to focus on enhancing trust between employees and management, improving psychological and social support, as well as investing in technology and communication tools. The analysis is as follows:
(1) Strengths:
1. Effective Communication: Communication in the virtual environment achieved a high effectiveness rate, indicating the success of communication tools in supporting collaboration and improving workflow and coordination between teams.
2. Speed and Efficiency of Decision-Making: Results showed that the virtual environment was effective in the speed and efficiency of decision-making.
3. High Adaptability: Virtual leadership received a high effectiveness rating in adapting to emergency conditions, reflecting its ability to cope with crises.
(2) Weaknesses:
1. Weak Trust and Transparency: The trust and transparency axis received a low effectiveness score, indicating challenges in building trust between management and employees and in establishing positive, sustainable relationships.
2. Weak Psychological and Social Support: Leadership's psychological and social support for employees scored low in effectiveness, indicating a lack of attention to this important aspect. This suggests that leaders may not prioritize employee well-being adequately.
3. Technological Challenges: Despite good support for technological infrastructure, there were technological challenges that affected the efficiency of virtual leadership.
(3) Opportunities:
1. Developing New Skills: Institutions can benefit from the new skills acquired from virtual work to enhance employee competencies and improve performance.
2. Improving Performance Through Lessons Learned: Lessons learned can be used to enhance the effectiveness of virtual leadership, as results indicate a readiness to improve performance.
3. Developing Communication Tools and Technology: By improving communication tools and developing technological infrastructure, the effectiveness of virtual leadership can be enhanced.
4. Increased Focus on Psychological Support: There is an opportunity to strengthen psychological and social support for employees, which will contribute to improving overall performance and morale.
5. Enhancing Team Relationships: There is an opportunity to enhance collaboration between teams by strengthening communication and interaction tools, which helps create a more interactive work environment.
6. Reassessing Leadership Models: Crises provide an opportunity to rethink traditional leadership models and adopt new strategies that had better support virtual leadership.
(4) Threats:
1. Adapting to the Shift Back to Traditional Work after Crises: Institutions may face challenges in adapting to traditional work environments, which could impact effectiveness.
2. Ongoing Technological Challenges: Dependence on technology may expose institutions to technical problems that could affect virtual leadership.
3. Lack of Trust between Employees and Management: If trust and transparency issues persist, this could lead to weakened cooperation and productivity in the future.
4. Increased Work Pressures: Crises may increase work pressures on employees, negatively affecting morale and overall performance.
5. Challenges to Business Continuity: Any issues with technology or infrastructure could hinder the ability to maintain effective virtual work, affecting the continuity of service delivery.
6. Rapid Changes in Work Environments: The swift transition between virtual and traditional work may cause confusion and instability among employees, requiring time to adapt.
6. Discussion and Recommendations
6.1. Discussion of Results
6.1.1. Enhancing Virtual Leadership During Crises
(1) The Role of Communication in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
The effectiveness results for the aspects of virtual leadership during crises indicate strengths and challenges in dealing with emergency conditions. Virtual communication was the most effective at 72.1%, reflecting the success of institutions in maintaining information flow and coordinating efforts among teams despite remote work. This result underscores the importance of virtual communication tools in effectively managing crises, as they played a vital role in enhancing collaboration and interaction among employees.
The results suggest that virtual communication played a critical role in enhancing virtual leadership during crises, demonstrating a high effectiveness of 74.3% concerning the use of virtual communication tools in institutions. This indicates that virtual leadership was able to maintain team cohesion and continuity of work by enhancing communication channels, despite the challenges imposed by various crises.
Furthermore, virtual communication contributed to enhancing collaboration between different departments with an effectiveness of 75.5%, which boosts the ability of virtual leadership to coordinate efforts and achieve common goals even under pressing conditions. Virtual communication also demonstrated a positive role in maintaining workflow, with an effectiveness of 75.8%. This reflects the ability of virtual leadership to manage teams effectively and ensure that work progresses at an appropriate pace despite the absence of physical presence in the workplace.
However, virtual meetings with senior management were less effective, scoring 68.1%, indicating that some aspects of strategic leadership require improvement to ensure effective communication and transfer of critical information. On the other hand, despite the role of virtual communication in facilitating work, it was less successful in reducing misunderstandings and miscommunication among teams, scoring 66.9%. This highlights that virtual leadership still needs further improvements to ensure clarity in instructions and avoid misunderstandings that may arise in a virtual work environment.
(2) The Role of Decision-Making in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
Decision-making achieved high percentages (67.4%), indicating the capacity of virtual leadership to make quick decisions. However, these percentages also reflect some challenges in virtual work environments that may affect the speed and accuracy of decision-making. The results indicate that the virtual environment contributed to improving the speed of decision-making, with this aspect achieving an effectiveness score of 73.4%. This reflects the ability of virtual leadership to cope with pressures and provide quick responses during critical times. Nevertheless, the data confirmed that strategic decision-making posed a greater challenge, with an effectiveness score of 72.3%. This suggests that the virtual environment may hinder some strategic thinking processes, necessitating additional efforts to ensure the accuracy of strategic decisions in the absence of personal interaction.
On another note, the results showed that virtual leadership was able to make informed decisions based on available information during crises, with an effectiveness of 71.1%. This indicates that having accurate and reliable information can significantly contribute to enhancing the quality of decisions made in a virtual work environment. However, technological challenges in this environment were one of the negative factors affecting the quality of decision-making, scoring a relatively low effectiveness of 48.5%. This highlights the importance of improving technological infrastructure to ensure effective support for decision-making processes.
Despite the mentioned challenges, the results showed that decisions made in the virtual environment were largely aligned with the institution's strategic objectives, achieving an effectiveness of 71.7%. This indicates that institutions can continue to achieve their strategic goals even in virtual environments, reflecting leadership resilience and adaptability to changes. However, these results emphasize the need to improve the tools and techniques available to support strategic decision-making processes and enhance the quality of outcomes in the future.
(3) The Role of Trust and Transparency in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
Regarding trust and transparency (63.8%), its result was moderate, indicating challenges in maintaining a high level of transparency between leadership and employees. The results indicate that trust between management and employees was negatively impacted, with this aspect scoring a low effectiveness of 53.3%. This indicates significant challenges in building and enhancing trust, which may affect morale and productivity at work. However, it seems that management provided reasonable transparency in exchanging important information during virtual work, achieving an effectiveness of 67.1%. This transparency can contribute to building trust between the parties in the long term.
As for trust in leadership decisions in the virtual environment, this aspect scored an effectiveness of 67.8%, indicating a moderate level of trust. This means that employees somewhat trust the leadership, but there remains room to improve this trust through greater openness and involvement in the decision-making process. On the other hand, regarding the challenges in accessing important information, the results showed some difficulties, with this aspect scoring an effectiveness of 63.5%. This reflects the need to improve access to information and ensure its easy and rapid availability to employees.
Finally, the results showed that the information exchanged between leadership and employees was generally accurate and timely, achieving an effectiveness of 67.0%. This accuracy in exchanging information contributes to improving communication processes and enhances the team's ability to work effectively, which may help build trust between management and employees in the future.
(4) The Role of Performance Management in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
The results of performance management (64.1%) were moderate, indicating challenges in evaluating and monitoring performance effectively. The results indicate that the performance evaluation process was generally effective and appropriate, but at a moderate level, achieving an effectiveness of 61.2%. This indicates a need to improve this process to ensure more accurate and transparent evaluations. Additionally, virtual leadership provided regular feedback to enhance performance, achieving an effectiveness of 62.6%. This indicates that management values continuous communication with employees to enhance performance, although the level of effectiveness still requires improvement.
Nevertheless, the results showed that employees felt that their team's overall performance was good, with this aspect achieving an effectiveness of 73.2%. This reflects the team's ability to adapt to challenges posed by virtual work, demonstrating resilience and the ability to achieve goals even under difficult circumstances. However, employees faced difficulties in monitoring performance and completing tasks in the virtual environment, with this aspect scoring an effectiveness of 60.6%. These difficulties indicate a need to enhance monitoring tools and methods to ensure greater effectiveness.
Finally, the results indicated that the virtual environment contributed to enabling employees to achieve their goals efficiently, achieving an effectiveness of 63.0%. This percentage reflects an improvement in efficiency, but also highlights the need for further support and resources to enhance this efficiency and ensure better achievement of strategic goals.
(5) The Role of Adaptability and Resilience in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
Adaptability and resilience achieved high percentages (67.2%), indicating the capacity of virtual leadership to adapt to emergency changes. The results indicate that leadership was flexible in adapting to emergency conditions, with this aspect scoring an effectiveness of 69.3%. This indicates the leadership's ability to respond quickly to changes and pressures imposed by crises, reflecting a high level of awareness and flexibility. Virtual leadership also contributed to enhancing the institution's ability to adapt to the requirements of crises, with an effectiveness of 71.0%. This percentage reflects the positive role that leadership plays in guiding the institution toward meeting new requirements and changing conditions.
Additionally, there was sufficient support from leadership to enhance quick adaptation to the virtual work environment, with this aspect achieving an effectiveness of 68.2%. This support reflects leadership's commitment to providing the necessary resources and tools to facilitate the transition to virtual work. However, the results indicated that they faced difficulties in adapting to the virtual work environment, with this aspect scoring an effectiveness of 59.7%. These difficulties indicate the need for more training and support to ensure the effectiveness of this type of work transition.
Finally, virtual leadership helped achieve a balance between work and personal life during crises, with an effectiveness of 67.6%. This percentage reflects the efforts made by leadership to consider employees' needs, which is crucial for maintaining employees' mental and physical well-being during difficult times.
(6) The Role of Psychological and Social Support for Employees in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
The effectiveness in psychological and social support was the lowest among the aspects at 61.1%, highlighting the need for increased attention to the psychological and moral aspects of employees in virtual work environments. The results indicate that virtual leadership did not pay sufficient attention to providing psychological and social support for employees, with this aspect scoring a low effectiveness of 57.6%. This indicates a lack of focus on psychological support aspects, which may negatively affect overall performance and employee morale during crises. On the other hand, participants expressed that leadership was able to enhance team morale, with this aspect achieving an effectiveness of 61.6%. This indicates that there are efforts made by leadership to motivate the team, but these efforts still need improvement to meet the actual needs of employees.
Similarly, the strategies employed by leadership were effective in enhancing team spirit among employees, with this aspect scoring the same percentage (61.6%). This reflects leadership's ability to encourage collaboration and solidarity among employees, despite the challenges posed by the virtual work environment. However, the results indicated that they did not receive adequate support from leadership to overcome psychological pressures, with this aspect scoring an effectiveness of 59.4%. This suggests the need to enhance psychological and social support programs to meet employees' needs.
Finally, the results found that the virtual work environment contributed to improving team communication and support for one another during crises, achieving an effectiveness of 65.0%. This percentage reflects the role of the virtual environment in enhancing communication and collaboration among employees, contributing to achieving common goals despite difficult conditions.
(7) The Role of Technology and Infrastructure in Enhancing Virtual Leadership during Crises
The results indicate that technology and infrastructure (63.5%) were sufficient to support virtual work but need improvements to ensure work continuity with greater efficiency in future crises. The results indicate that support for technological infrastructure for virtual leadership achieved an effectiveness of 64.3%, indicating a good level.
6.1.2. The Relationship Between Virtual Leadership Dimensions and Their Role in Enhancing Virtual Leadership During Crises
These results indicate that all dimensions related to virtual leadership mutually influence and enhance each other. Correlation analysis shows that improving each dimension contributes to enhancing the effectiveness of virtual leadership, enabling organizations to better adapt to crises and ensure operational continuity efficiently. Therefore, organizations should focus on developing comprehensive strategies that target all dimensions to achieve success in dynamic work environments. These results can be discussed according to each dimension as follows:
(1) The Correlation between Communication in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
The results indicate that communication is a fundamental factor in enhancing the effectiveness of virtual leadership, with the highest correlation with decision-making (0.74). This highlights the importance of having effective communication channels to facilitate information exchange, contributing to the speed and quality of decision-making. Strong correlations with adaptability and flexibility (0.651) and performance management (0.606) reflect the role of communication in enhancing teams' ability to adapt to challenges and continue working efficiently. Therefore, organizations should enhance communication strategies to ensure the continuity of effective collaboration during crises.
(2) The Correlation between Decision-Making in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
The results show that decision-making is strongly correlated with communication (0.74), adaptability, and flexibility (0.621). This indicates that the effectiveness of the decision-making process heavily relies on the quality of available information and the speed of communication among teams. Additionally, correlations with performance management (0.635) and trust and transparency (0.514) reflect the importance of having an institutional culture that supports transparency and trust, enhancing teams' ability to make informed decisions. Organizations should provide training and resources to improve decision-making skills in virtual work environments.
(3) The Correlation between Trust and Transparency in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
The results show that trust and transparency positively correlate with performance management (0.569), adaptability, and flexibility (0.614). This reflects the important role of trust in enhancing collaboration among teams and improving overall performance. However, the weak relationship with psychological and social support (0.487) indicates the need to improve psychological support strategies to enhance trust. This can be achieved by creating a work environment that encourages open dialogue and provides feedback.
(4) The Correlation between Performance Management in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
Performance management has a strong correlation with adaptability and flexibility (0.693) and psychological and social support (0.610), indicating that good performance enhances teams' ability to adapt to challenges. Furthermore, the relationship with communication (0.606) emphasizes the importance of providing an effective communication environment to evaluate performance and achieve goals. Organizations should implement continuous evaluation strategies that enhance performance effectiveness and ensure the achievement of specified objectives.
(5) The Correlation between Adaptability and Flexibility in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
The results indicate that adaptability and flexibility are strongly correlated with psychological and social support (0.729), highlighting the importance of providing psychological support to employees to enhance their ability to adapt to changing conditions. The correlation with performance management (0.693) indicates that effective performance enhances team flexibility. Organizations should provide a supportive work environment that helps employees cope with pressures and develop adaptability skills.
(6) The Correlation between Psychological and Social Support in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
The results show that psychological and social support is strongly correlated with technology and infrastructure (0.642). This means that providing appropriate and suitable infrastructure for virtual work technologies contributes to improving psychological support for employees. The correlation with adaptability and flexibility (0.729) also highlights the importance of this support in enhancing individuals' ability to adapt. Organizations should provide psychological support resources and promote a culture of cooperation and support among employees.
(7) The Correlation between Technology and Infrastructure in a Virtual Environment during Crises and Other Dimensions:
The results show that technology and infrastructure positively correlate with psychological and social support (0.642), adaptability, and flexibility (0.617). These relationships reflect the importance of providing suitable technologies to ensure operational continuity in virtual work environments. Organizations should invest in developing and updating technological infrastructure to ensure adequate support for employees and enhance team performance during crises.
6.1.3. Proposed Strategies for Government Institutions on Virtual Leadership During Crises
Crises require a swift and effective response from government institutions, making virtual leadership an urgent necessity. Below is a set of strategies that can be adopted based on the previous results to enhance the effectiveness of virtual leadership during crises:
(1) Enhance Virtual Communication Channels and Organize Regular Meetings:
Establish effective virtual communication channels and hold regular meetings to discuss updates and challenges.
(2) Implement a Data-Driven Decision-Making System:
Use a databased approach to support decision-making and form rapid response teams that include specialists from various departments.
(3) Provide Accurate and Clear Information:
Ensure the dissemination of accurate and clear information, and open channels for collecting feedback from employees to enhance trust in leadership.
(4) Develop Performance Indicators Aligned with Current Conditions:
Create performance indicators that align with current circumstances and provide continuous feedback to improve team performance.
(5) Offer Flexible Training Programs:
Implement flexible training programs focusing on crisis adaptation skills, and provide resources that encourage innovation.
(6) Develop Programs to Enhance Employee Mental Health and Well-Being:
Create initiatives aimed at promoting mental health and well-being among employees, and organize virtual social events.
(7) Invest in Modern Technologies and Provide Technical Support:
Invest in advanced technologies and ensure technical support is available to guarantee effective use of technological tools.
(8) Encourage a Culture of Innovation:
Foster a culture of innovation by creating platforms for idea and suggestion exchanges among all employees, and provide rewards for new initiatives aimed at addressing crises.
6.2. Conclusions
(1) High Effectiveness of Virtual Communication:
The high effectiveness of virtual communication indicates that it is a fundamental element in enhancing virtual leadership, as it helps maintain coordinated efforts and fosters collaboration among teams even during crises. However, challenges related to virtual meetings with upper management and potential misunderstandings highlight the need for improving communication channels.
(2) Decision-Making Effectiveness:
The elevated effectiveness of decision-making reflects the ability of virtual leadership to respond quickly; however, technical challenges may hinder this process. More efforts are needed to improve the quality of strategic decisions in virtual work environments.
(3) Trust and Transparency:
The medium effectiveness of trust and transparency suggests the need to strengthen trust between management and employees. Continuous efforts are required to ensure openness and participation in decision-making.
(4) Performance Evaluation:
Although performance evaluation was effective, there is a need to enhance this process. Performance evaluation procedures should include ongoing feedback to support overall employee performance.
(5) Adaptability to Crises:
The results demonstrated the ability of virtual leadership to adapt to crises, but further training and support are necessary to ensure effective adaptation in virtual work environments.
(6) Need for Psychological and Social Support:
Psychological and social support is the area most in need of improvement, necessitating increased focus on the psychological and moral aspects of employees during crises.
(7) Improving Technology and Infrastructure:
The importance of enhancing technology and infrastructure to support virtual work is evident, as the current technological support is insufficient to meet the needs of virtual leadership.
6.3. Recommendations
(1) Improve Virtual Communication Channels:
Institutions should enhance virtual communication channels through training and providing appropriate tools to ensure effective information flow and reduce misunderstandings.
(2) Provide Necessary Resources and Accurate Data:
It is essential to provide the necessary resources and accurate data to enhance the quality of decision-making in virtual environments, focusing on rapid response and strategic thinking.
(3) Build Trust Between Management and Employees:
Efforts should be made to build trust between management and employees by increasing transparency in information sharing and involving employees in decision-making processes.
(4) Develop Effective Performance Evaluation Mechanisms:
Institutions should develop effective performance evaluation mechanisms that include continuous feedback to improve overall performance and ensure goal achievement.
(5) Offer Continuous Training for Employees:
Continuous training should be provided to employees on how to adapt to virtual work environments and enhance their remote working skills.
(6) Develop Psychological and Social Support Programs:
Institutions must create psychological and social support programs that address employee needs and boost morale during crises.
(7) Invest in Technology and Infrastructure Improvements:
Investment should be made in improving technology and infrastructure to support virtual operations, including providing necessary technical support to ensure efficient work continuity.
(8) Conduct Regular Assessments of Effectiveness:
Periodic assessments of effectiveness across all dimensions related to virtual leadership should be conducted to ensure continuous improvement and adaptation to new challenges.
Abbreviations
AHP | Analytic Hierarchy Process |
GAO | Government Accountability Office |
SPSS | Statistical Package for the Social Sciences |
Author Contributions
Maen Ahmed Fawzi Salhab is the sole author. The author read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
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Cite This Article
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APA Style
Salhab, M. A. F. (2025). The Level of Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership in Palestinian Government Institutions During Crises "A Case Study COVID-19 Pandemic". Journal of Business and Economic Development, 10(3), 114-134. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
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Salhab, M. A. F. The Level of Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership in Palestinian Government Institutions During Crises "A Case Study COVID-19 Pandemic". J. Bus. Econ. Dev. 2025, 10(3), 114-134. doi: 10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
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Salhab MAF. The Level of Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership in Palestinian Government Institutions During Crises "A Case Study COVID-19 Pandemic". J Bus Econ Dev. 2025;10(3):114-134. doi: 10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
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@article{10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11,
author = {Maen Ahmed Fawzi Salhab},
title = {The Level of Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership in Palestinian Government Institutions During Crises "A Case Study COVID-19 Pandemic"
},
journal = {Journal of Business and Economic Development},
volume = {10},
number = {3},
pages = {114-134},
doi = {10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.jbed.20251003.11},
abstract = {Crises such as natural disasters, financial instability, and pandemics pose significant challenges to government institutions, impacting their performance and resilience. In response, virtual leadership has emerged as a critical approach to ensuring sustainability and adaptability. This study examines the effectiveness of virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises, assessing key determinants including communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability, psychological and social support, and technological infrastructure. Additionally, it analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with virtual leadership and proposes strategies for improvement. A quantitative analytical approach was adopted, utilizing survey data collected from 370 supervisory employees in Palestinian government institutions between August 12 and September 18, 2024. Findings indicate that the overall effectiveness of virtual leadership in these institutions reached 67.4%, compared to 77% in U.S. federal agencies and 80% among British government employees working remotely during the pandemic. Among leadership dimensions, communication was the most effective (72.1%), followed by decision-making (67.4%) and adaptability (67.2%), while psychological and social support scored the lowest (61.1%). The study highlights the critical role of effective virtual communication in enhancing leadership performance and collaboration. However, challenges such as misunderstandings in senior management meetings necessitate improved communication channels. Decision-making effectiveness reflects the ability to respond swiftly to challenges, though technical issues remain a barrier, requiring better strategic decision-making processes. Trust and transparency between management and employees also need strengthening. The study recommends improving virtual communication through targeted training and advanced tools, ensuring resource availability for high-quality decision-making, and fostering employee engagement in decision processes to build trust. Additionally, continuous performance evaluation and training on virtual work adaptation are essential to enhancing overall effectiveness.},
year = {2025}
}
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-
TY - JOUR
T1 - The Level of Effectiveness of Virtual Leadership in Palestinian Government Institutions During Crises "A Case Study COVID-19 Pandemic"
AU - Maen Ahmed Fawzi Salhab
Y1 - 2025/07/28
PY - 2025
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
DO - 10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
T2 - Journal of Business and Economic Development
JF - Journal of Business and Economic Development
JO - Journal of Business and Economic Development
SP - 114
EP - 134
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2637-3874
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.jbed.20251003.11
AB - Crises such as natural disasters, financial instability, and pandemics pose significant challenges to government institutions, impacting their performance and resilience. In response, virtual leadership has emerged as a critical approach to ensuring sustainability and adaptability. This study examines the effectiveness of virtual leadership in Palestinian government institutions during crises, assessing key determinants including communication, decision-making, trust and transparency, performance management, adaptability, psychological and social support, and technological infrastructure. Additionally, it analyzes the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats associated with virtual leadership and proposes strategies for improvement. A quantitative analytical approach was adopted, utilizing survey data collected from 370 supervisory employees in Palestinian government institutions between August 12 and September 18, 2024. Findings indicate that the overall effectiveness of virtual leadership in these institutions reached 67.4%, compared to 77% in U.S. federal agencies and 80% among British government employees working remotely during the pandemic. Among leadership dimensions, communication was the most effective (72.1%), followed by decision-making (67.4%) and adaptability (67.2%), while psychological and social support scored the lowest (61.1%). The study highlights the critical role of effective virtual communication in enhancing leadership performance and collaboration. However, challenges such as misunderstandings in senior management meetings necessitate improved communication channels. Decision-making effectiveness reflects the ability to respond swiftly to challenges, though technical issues remain a barrier, requiring better strategic decision-making processes. Trust and transparency between management and employees also need strengthening. The study recommends improving virtual communication through targeted training and advanced tools, ensuring resource availability for high-quality decision-making, and fostering employee engagement in decision processes to build trust. Additionally, continuous performance evaluation and training on virtual work adaptation are essential to enhancing overall effectiveness.
VL - 10
IS - 3
ER -
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