A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition) , International Journal of Pain Research, Science Publishing Group

Review Article |

| Peer-Reviewed

A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition)

Zhi-Xiang Cheng

, Xian-Guo Liu

, Yan Lu

, Ke Ma

, Dong Huang

, Qing Liu

, Xiao-Qiu Yang

, Li-Juan Lu

, Tang-Hua Liu

, Lin Wang

, Jin-Feng Liu

, Bao-Juan Zhang

, Yan-Qing Liu^*

Published in International Journal of Pain Research (Volume 1, Issue 4)

Received: 12 June 2025 Accepted: 22 September 2025 Published: 29 October 2025

Views: Downloads:

Download PDF

Share This Article

Twitter
Linked In
Facebook

Abstract

Background: Low back pain (LBP) is the leading cause of disability worldwide, severely impairing patients' quality of life, consuming substantial healthcare resources, and increasing medical costs while reducing productivity. Low back pain has become the leading cause of disability worldwide and a major global public health issue. Objective: To enhance the ability of diagnosis and treatment for LBP to meet the needs of clinical diagnosis and treatment. Main ideas: Based on high quality evidence based medical research on the diagnosis and treatment of LBP published domestically and internationally between January 2010 and December 2023, the expert group of the Pain Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Special Capacity Enhancement Project of the National Health Commission of China's Capacity Building and Continuing Education Centerhas formed recommendations for common treatment methods through rigorous argumentation and expert voting, to provide references for standardized diagnosis and treatment of LBP. This guideline adopts GRADE methodology to evaluate the level of evidence and strength of recommendation for the treatments of common chronic specific low back pain (cSLBP) and chronic non-specific low back pain (cNSLBP). Conclusion: LBP is characterized by high prevalence, significant disability rates, and frequent recurrence, imposing substantial burdens on individuals, families, and society. For patients, improving understanding of cLBP, practicing effective self-management, and actively cooperating with treatment are crucial for disease prognosis. Healthcare providers must enhance patient education and clinical competencies while strictly adhering to diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for comprehensive cLBP management. Policymakers and academic organizations should focus on developing evidence-based clinical guidelines, strengthening healthcare system oversight, and promoting widespread implementation of standardized cLBP care protocols.

Published in	International Journal of Pain Research (Volume 1, Issue 4)
DOI	10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
Page(s)	107-131
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2025. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Chronic Pain, Chronic Low Back Pain, Guideline

References

[1]	Roseen EJ, Rajendran I, Stein P, et al. Association of Back Pain with Mortality: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Cohort Studies [J]. J Gen Intern Med, 2021, 36(10): 3148-3158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-021-06732-6
[2]	Ma K, Zhuang ZG, Wang L, et al. The Chinese Association for the Study of Pain (CASP): Consensus on the Assessment and Management of Chronic Nonspecific Low Back Pain. Pain Res Manag [J], 2019, 2019: 8957847. https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8957847
[3]	Specialist Group on Pain Management Training Program of National Health Commission Capacity Building and Continuing Education Center, Liu T, Liu Q, et al. Consensus of Chinese pain department experts on rehabilitation of chronic low back pain [J]. Chinese Journal of Painology, 2021, 17(6): 570-579. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.cn101658-20211119-00168 (in Chinese).
[4]	Guyatt G, Oxman AD, Akl EA, et al. GRADE guidelines: 1. Introduction-GRADE evidence profiles and summary of findings tables [J]. J Clin Epidemiol, 2011, 64(4): 383-394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2010.04.026
[5]	Balshem H, Helfand M, Schünemann HJ, et al. GRADE guidelines: 3. Rating the quality of evidence [J]. J Clin Epidemiol, 2011, 64(4): 401-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2010.07.015
[6]	Jaeschke R, Guyatt GH, Dellinger P, et al. Use of GRADE grid to reach decisions on clinical practice guidelines when consensus is elusive [J]. BMJ, 2008, 337: 327-330. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a744
[7]	Clark S, Horton R. Low back pain: a major global challenge [J]. Lancet, 2018, 391(10137): 2302. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)30725-6
[8]	Shirado O, Arai Y, Iguchi T, et al. Formulation of Japanese Orthopaedic Association (JOA) clinical practice guideline for the management of low back pain- the revised 2019 edition [J]. J Orthop Sci, 2022, 27(1): 3-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jos.2021.06.024
[9]	Petrucci G, Papalia GF, Russo F, et al. Psychological Approaches for the Integrative Care of Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Metanalysis [J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2021, 19(1): 60. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010060
[10]	de Souza IMB, Sakaguchi TF, Yuan SLK, et al. Prevalence of low back pain in the elderly population: a systematic review [J]. Clinics (Sao Paulo), 2019, 74: e789. https://doi.org/10.6061/clinics/2019/e789
[11]	Shanthanna H, Gilron I, Rajarathinam M, et al. Benefits and safety of gabapentinoids in chronic low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. PLoS Med, 2017, 14(8): e1002369. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002369
[12]	Liu Y, Zheng Y. Epidemiological survey of chronic low back pain among Chinese residents [J]. Chinese Medical News, 2017, 32(21): 12. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1000-8039.2017.21.012 (in Chinese).
[13]	Kahere M, Hlongwa M, Ginindza TG. A Scoping Review on the Epidemiology of Chronic Low Back Pain among Adults in Sub-Saharan Africa [J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022, 19(5): 2964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19052964
[14]	Wong CK, Mak RY, Kwok TS, et al. Prevalence, Incidence, and Factors Associated With Non-Specific Chronic Low Back Pain in Community-Dwelling Older Adults Aged 60 Years and Older: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. J Pain, 2022, 23(4): 509-534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2021.07.012
[15]	Fatoye F, Gebrye T, Odeyemi I. Real-world incidence and prevalence of low back pain using routinely collected data [J]. Rheumatol Int, 2019, 39(4): 619-626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00296-019-04273-0
[16]	Al Amer HS. Low back pain prevalence and risk factors among health workers in Saudi Arabia: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. J Occup Health, 2020, 62(1): e12155. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12155
[17]	Taylor JB, Goode AP, George SZ, et al. Incidence and risk factors for first-time incident low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Spine J, 2014, 14(10): 2299-2319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2014.01.026
[18]	Øiestad BE, Hilde G, Tveter AT, et al. Risk factors for episodes of back pain in emerging adults. A systematic review [J]. Eur J Pain, 2020, 24(1): 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1474
[19]	Felício DC, Filho JE, de Oliveira TMD, et al. Risk factors for non-specific low back pain in older people: a systematic review with meta-analysis [J]. Arch Orthop Trauma Surg, 2022, 142(12): 3633-3642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00402-021-03959-0
[20]	Baradaran Mahdavi S, Riahi R, Vahdatpour B, et al. Association between sedentary behavior and low back pain; A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Health Promot Perspect, 2021, 11(4): 393-410. https://doi.org/10.34172/hpp.2021.50
[21]	Hoy D, Bain C, Williams G, et al. A systematic review of the global prevalence of low back pain [J]. Arthritis Rheum, 2012, 64(6): 2028-2037. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.34347
[22]	Knezevic NN, Candido KD, Vlaeyen JWS, et al. Low back pain [J]. Lancet, 2021, 398(10294): 78-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00733-9
[23]	Pinto EM, Neves JR, Laranjeira M, et al. The importance of inflammatory biomarkers in non-specific acute and chronic low back pain: a systematic review [J]. Eur Spine J, 2023, 32(9): 3230-3244. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-023-07717-1
[24]	Lim YZ, Wang Y, Cicuttini FM, et al. Association Between Inflammatory Biomarkers and Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review [J]. Clin J Pain, 2020, 36(5): 379-389. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000810
[25]	Carvalho-E-Silva APMC, Harmer AR, Pinheiro MB, et al. Does the heritability of chronic low back pain depend on how the condition is assessed? [J] Eur J Pain, 2019, 23(9): 1712-1722. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1448
[26]	Ng SK, Urquhart DM, Fitzgerald PB, et al. The Relationship Between Structural and Functional Brain Changes and Altered Emotion and Cognition in Chronic Low Back Pain Brain Changes: A Systematic Review of MRI and fMRI Studies [J]. Clin J Pain, 2018, 34(3): 237-261. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000534
[27]	Dorsi M, Belzberg A. Low back pain [M].//Jeffery. Non-specific low back pain. New York: McGrawHill, 2005: 141-146.
[28]	Chou R, Huffman LH; American Pain Society; American College of Physicians. Nonpharmacologic therapies for acute and chronic low back pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline [J]. Ann Intern Med, 2007, 147(7): 492-504. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00007
[29]	Chou R, Huffman LH; American Pain Society; American College of Physicians. Medications for acute and chronic low back pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline [J]. Ann Intern Med, 2007, 147(7): 505-514. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-147-7-200710020-00008
[30]	Poder TG, Beffarat M. Attributes Underlying Non-surgical Treatment Choice for People With Low Back Pain: A Systematic Mixed Studies Review [J]. Int J Health Policy Manag, 2021, 10(4): 201-210. https://doi.org/10.34172/ijhpm.2020.49
[31]	Wang L, Guo Q, Lu X, et al. Surgical versus nonsurgical treatment of chronic low back pain: A meta-analysis based on current evidence [J]. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil, 2016, 29(3): 393-401. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-150632
[32]	Stock C. Grand Challenges for Public Health Education and Promotion [J]. Front Public Health, 2022, 10: 917685. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.917685
[33]	Lim YZ, Chou L, Au RT, et al. People with low back pain want clear, consistent and personalised information on prognosis, treatment options and self-management strategies: a systematic review [J]. J Physiother, 2019, 65(3): 124-135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphys.2019.05.010
[34]	Kim SK, Kim HS, Chung SS. Effects of an Individualized Educational Program for Korean Patients With Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial [J]. J Nurs Res, 2021, 29(6): e177. https://doi.org/10.1097/jnr.0000000000000455
[35]	Sharma S, Jensen MP, Moseley GL, et al. Results of a feasibility randomised clinical trial on pain education for low back pain in Nepal: the Pain Education in Nepal-Low Back Pain (PEN-LBP) feasibility trial [J]. BMJ Open, 2019, 9(3): e026874. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-026874
[36]	Zahari Z, Ishak A, Justine M. The effectiveness of patient education in improving pain, disability and quality of life among older people with low back pain: A systematic review [J]. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil, 2020, 33(2): 245-254. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-181305
[37]	Ma X, Chen R, Li W, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of pain neuroscience education for chronic low back pain: short-term outcomes of pain and disability [J]. Physiother Theory Pract, 2023, 3: 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593985.2023.2232003
[38]	Li D, Wang H, Chen F, et al. Systematic review and Meta-analysis of health education interventions for low back pain [J]. Chinese Journal of Rehabilitation, 2020, 35(5): 262-268. https://doi.org/10.3870/zgkf.2020.05.010 (in Chinese).
[39]	Nicholl BI, Sandal LF, Stochkendahl MJ, et al. Digital Support Interventions for the Self-Management of Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review [J]. J Med Internet Res, 2017, 19(5): e179. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7290
[40]	Du S, Hu L, Dong J, et al. Self-management program for chronic low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Patient Educ Couns, 2017, 100(1): 37-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2016.07.029
[41]	Rathnayake APS, Sparkes V, Sheeran L. What is the effect of low back pain self-management interventions with exercise components added? A systematic review with meta-analysis [J]. Musculoskelet Sci Pract, 2021, 56: 102469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2021.102469
[42]	Abdildin Y, Tapinova K, Jyeniskhan N, et al. High-intensity laser therapy in low back pain management: a systematic review with meta-analysis [J]. Lasers Med Sci, 2023, 38(1): 166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10103-023-03827-w
[43]	Notarnicola A, Maccagnano G, Tafuri S, et al. High level laser therapy for the treatment of lower back pain: clinical efficacy and comparison of different wavelengths [J]. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents, 2016, 30(4): 1157-1164.
[44]	Huang Z, Ma J, Chen J, et al. The effectiveness of low-level laser therapy for nonspecific chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Arthritis Res Ther, 2015, 17: 360. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13075-015-0882-0
[45]	Glazov G, Yelland M, Emery J. Low-level laser therapy for chronic non-specific low back pain: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials [J]. Acupunct Med, 2016, 34(5): 328-341. https://doi.org/10.1136/acupmed-2015-011036
[46]	Jauregui JJ, Cherian JJ, Gwam CU, et al. A Meta-Analysis of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation for Chronic Low Back Pain [J]. Surg Technol Int, 2016, 28: 296-302.
[47]	Wu LC, Weng PW, Chen CH, et al. Literature Review and Meta-Analysis of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation in Treating Chronic Back Pain [J]. Reg Anesth Pain Med, 2018, 43(4): 425-433. https://doi.org/10.1097/AAP.0000000000000740
[48]	Verville L, Hincapié CA, Southerst D, et al. Systematic Review to Inform a World Health Organization (WHO) Clinical Practice Guideline: Benefits and Harms of Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) for Chronic Primary Low Back Pain in Adults [J]. J Occup Rehabil, 2023, 33(4): 651-660. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10926-023-10121-7
[49]	Rampazo ÉP, Júnior MAL, Corrêa JB, et al. Effectiveness of interferential current in patients with chronic non-specific low back pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis [J]. Braz J Phys Ther, 2023, 27(5): 100549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjpt.2023.100549
[50]	Albornoz-Cabello M, Maya-Martín J, Domínguez-Maldonado G, et al. Effect of interferential current therapy on pain perception and disability level in subjects with chronic low back pain: a randomized controlled trial [J]. Clin Rehabil, 2017, 31(2): 242-249. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215516639653
[51]	Ebadi S, Henschke N, Forogh B, et al. Therapeutic ultrasound for chronic low back pain [J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2020, 7(7): CD009169. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009169.pub3
[52]	Noori SA, Rasheed A, Aiyer R, et al. Therapeutic Ultrasound for Pain Management in Chronic Low Back Pain and Chronic Neck Pain: A Systematic Review [J]. Pain Med, 2020, 21(7): 1482-1493. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pny287
[53]	Sun X, Huang L, Wang L, et al. Efficacy of pulsed electromagnetic field on pain and physical function in patients with low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Clin Rehabil, 2022, 36(5): 636-649. https://doi.org/10.1177/02692155221074052
[54]	Andrade R, Duarte H, Pereira R, et al. Pulsed electromagnetic field therapy effectiveness in low back pain: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials [J]. Porto Biomed J, 2016, 1(5): 156-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbj.2016.09.001
[55]	Mao S, Xiao K, Zhou W, et al. The Impact of Hot Spring Hydrotherapy on Pain Perception and Dysfunction Severity in Patients with Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. J Pain Res, 2023, 16: 3925-3944. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S438744
[56]	Yue L, Sun MS, Chen H, et al. Extracorporeal Shockwave Therapy for Treating Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials [J]. Biomed Res Int, 2021, 2021: 5937250. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5937250
[57]	Li C, Xiao Z, Chen L, et al. Efficacy and safety of extracorporeal shock wave on low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2022, 101(52): e32053. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000032053
[58]	Liu K, Zhang Q, Chen L, et al. Efficacy and safety of extracorporeal shockwave therapy in chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 632 patients [J]. J Orthop Surg Res, 2023, 18(1): 455. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-023-03943-x
[59]	Wu Z, Zhou T, Ai S. Extracorporeal shock wave therapy for low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2023, 102(52): e36596. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000036596
[60]	Gao W, Ye J, Zhang M. Clinical efficacy of deep muscle stimulator in treating non-specific low back pain [J]. China Medicine and Pharmacy, 2017, 7(23): 182-184, 252. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.2095-0616.2017.23.055 (in Chinese).
[61]	Yan B, Gao C, Liang Y, et al. Therapeutic effect of DMS combined with McKenzie therapy on lumbar disc herniation [J]. Chinese Journal of Rehabilitation, 2016, 31(3): 208-210. https://doi.org/10.3870/zgkf.2016.03.015 (in Chinese).
[62]	Wood L, Bishop A, Lewis M, et al. Treatment targets of exercise for persistent non-specific low back pain: a consensus study [J]. Physiotherapy, 2021, 112: 78-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2021.03.005
[63]	Hayden JA, Wilson MN, Stewart S, et al. Chronic Low Back Pain IPD Meta-Analysis Group. Exercise treatment effect modifiers in persistent low back pain: an individual participant data meta-analysis of 3514 participants from 27 randomised controlled trials [J]. Br J Sports Med, 2020, 54(21): 1277-1278. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101205
[64]	Kolber MR, Ton J, Thomas B, et al. PEER systematic review of randomized controlled trials: Management of chronic low back pain in primary care [J]. Can Fam Physician, 2021, 67(1): e20-e30. https://doi.org/10.46747/cfp.6701e20
[65]	Grooten WJA, Boström C, Dedering Å, et al. Summarizing the effects of different exercise types in chronic low back pain - a systematic review of systematic reviews [J]. BMC Musculoskelet Disord, 2022, 23(1): 801. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-022-05722-x
[66]	Hayden JA, Ellis J, Ogilvie R, et al. Some types of exercise are more effective than others in people with chronic low back pain: a network meta-analysis [J]. J Physiother, 2021, 67(4): 252-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphys.2021.09.004
[67]	Fernández-Rodríguez R, Álvarez-Bueno C, Cavero-Redondo I, et al. Best Exercise Options for Reducing Pain and Disability in Adults With Chronic Low Back Pain: Pilates, Strength, Core-Based, and Mind-Body. A Network Meta-analysis [J]. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther, 2022, 52(8): 505-521. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2022.10671
[68]	Yu Z, Yin Y, Wang J, et al. Efficacy of Pilates on Pain, Functional Disorders and Quality of Life in Patients with Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2023, 20(4): 2850. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20042850
[69]	Franks J, Thwaites C, Morris ME. Pilates to Improve Core Muscle Activation in Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review [J]. Healthcare (Basel), 2023, 11(10): 1404. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11101404
[70]	Patti A, Thornton JS, Giustino V, et al. Effectiveness of Pilates exercise on low back pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis [J]. Disabil Rehabil, 2023, 26: 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2023.2251404
[71]	Huang J, Park HY. Effect of pilates training on pain and disability in patients with chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis based on randomized controlled trials [J]. Phys Act Nutr. 2023 Mar; 27(1): 16-29. https://doi.org/10.20463/pan.2023.0003
[72]	Huang W, Cheng B, Xie W. Meta-analysis of Pilates exercise intervention for low back pain [J]. Hubei Sports Science, 2023, 42(7): 606-611, 628. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1003-983X.2023.07.008 (in Chinese).
[73]	Namnaqani FI, Mashabi AS, Yaseen KM, et al. The effectiveness of McKenzie method compared to manual therapy for treating chronic low back pain: a systematic review [J]. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact, 2019, 19(4): 492-499
[74]	Jin X, Deng R, Kong J, et al. Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy of McKenzie therapy for low back pain [J]. Military Medical Journal of South China, 2021, 35(4): 282-291. https://doi.org/10.13730/j.issn.1009-2595.2021.04.011 (in Chinese).
[75]	Anheyer D, Haller H, Lauche R, et al. Yoga for treating low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Pain, 2022, 163(4): e504-e517. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002416
[76]	Zhu F, Zhang M, Wang D, et al. Yoga compared to non-exercise or physical therapy exercise on pain, disability, and quality of life for patients with chronic low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. PLoS One, 2020, 15(9): e0238544. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238544
[77]	Zhang X, Chang T, Hu W, et al. Efficacy and safety of yoga for the management of chronic low back pain: an overview of systematic reviews [J]. Front Neurol, 2023, 14: 1273473. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2023.1273473
[78]	Kim SD. Twelve Weeks of Yoga for Chronic Nonspecific Lower Back Pain: A Meta-Analysis [J]. Pain Manag Nurs, 2020, 21(6): 536-542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmn.2020.07.002
[79]	Sheng Y, Duan Z, Qu Q, et al. Kinesio taping in treatment of chronic non-specific low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. J Rehabil Med, 2019, 51(10): 734-740. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-2605
[80]	Li Y, Yin Y, Jia G, et al. Effects of kinesiotape on pain and disability in individuals with chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. Clin Rehabil, 2019, 33(4): 596-606. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215518817804
[81]	Pan L, Li Y, Gao L, et al. Effects of Kinesio Taping for Chronic Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [J]. Altern Ther Health Med, 2023, 29(6): 68-76
[82]	Luz Júnior MAD, Almeida MO, Santos RS, et al. Effectiveness of Kinesio Taping in Patients With Chronic Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis [J]. Spine (Phila Pa 1976), 2019, 44(1): 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1097/BRS.0000000000002756
[83]	Syroyid Syroyid I, Cavero-Redondo I, Syroyid Syroyid B. Effects of Resistance Training on Pain Control and Physical Function in Older Adults With Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis [J]. J Geriatr Phys Ther, 2022, 46(3): E113-E126. https://doi.org/10.1519/JPT.0000000000000374
[84]	Cortell-Tormo JM, Sánchez PT, Chulvi-Medrano I, et al. Effects of functional resistance training on fitness and quality of life in females with chronic nonspecific low-back pain [J]. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil, 2018, 31(1): 95-105. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-169684
[85]	Lawford BJ, Walters J, Ferrar K. Does walking improve disability status, function, or quality of life in adults with chronic low back pain? A systematic review [J]. Clin Rehabil, 2016, 30(6): 523-536. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269215515590487
[86]	Sitthipornvorakul E, Klinsophon T, Sihawong R, et al. The effects of walking intervention in patients with chronic low back pain: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. Musculoskelet Sci Pract, 2018, 34: 38-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2017.12.003
[87]	Kazeminia M, Rajati F, Rajati M. The effect of pelvic floor muscle-strengthening exercises on low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis on randomized clinical trials [J]. Neurol Sci, 2023, 44(3): 859-872. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-022-06430-z
[88]	Bi X, Zhao J, Zhao L, et al. Pelvic floor muscle exercise for chronic low back pain [J]. J Int Med Res, 2013, 41(1): 146-152. https://doi.org/10.1177/0300060513475383
[89]	Du L, Wang W, Ding L. Meta-analysis of sling exercise therapy for chronic low back pain [J]. Chinese Evidence-Based Nursing, 2023, 9(12): 2091-2096. https://doi.org/10.12102/j.issn.2095-8668.2023.12.001 (in Chinese).
[90]	Huang D, Zhou F, Huang S. Meta-analysis of sling exercise therapy for chronic non-specific low back pain [J]. Chinese Journal of Rehabilitation Theory and Practice, 2017, 23(12): 1435-1442. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-9771.2017.12.014 (in Chinese).
[91]	Smrcina Z, Woelfel S, Burcal C. A Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Core Stability Exercises in Patients with Non-Specific Low Back Pain [J]. Int J Sports Phys Ther, 2022, 17(5): 766-774. https://doi.org/10.26603/001c.37251
[92]	Stuber KJ, Bruno P, Sajko S, et al. Core stability exercises for low back pain in athletes: a systematic review of the literature [J]. Clin J Sport Med, 2014, 24(6): 448-456. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0000000000000081
[93]	Shi J, Liu Z, Zhou X, et al. Effects of breathing exercises on low back pain in clinical: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Complement Ther Med, 2023, 79: 102993. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctim.2023.102993
[94]	Zhao Q, Zhang GZ, Zhang N, et al. Systematic review and Meta-analysis of the effect of respiratory training on non-specific low back pain [J]. Journal of Inner Mongolia Normal University (Natural Science Edition), 2023, 52(2): 162-168. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1001-8735.2023.02.008 (in Chinese).
[95]	Asano H, Plonka D, Weeger J. Effectiveness of Acupuncture for Nonspecific Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. Med Acupunct, 2022, 34(2): 96-106. https://doi.org/10.1089/acu.2021.0057
[96]	Mu J, Furlan AD, Lam WY, et al. Acupuncture for chronic nonspecific low back pain [J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2020, 12(12): CD013814. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013814
[97]	Li YX, Yuan SE, Jiang JQ, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of effects of acupuncture on pain and function in non-specific low back pain [J]. Acupunct Med, 2020, 38(4): 235-243. https://doi.org/10.1136/acupmed-2017-011622
[98]	Lara-Palomo IC, Gil-Martínez E, López-Fernández MD, et al. Efficacy of Dry Needling for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials [J]. Altern Ther Health Med, 2023, 29(8): 110-120
[99]	Dach F, Ferreira KS. Treating myofascial pain with dry needling: a systematic review for the best evidence-based practices in low back pain [J]. Arq Neuropsiquiatr, 2023, 81(12): 1169-1178. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-1777731
[100]	Hu X, Dong S, Zhang B, et al. Efficacy of silver needle therapy for the treatment of chronic nonspecific low back pain: a prospective, single-center, randomized, parallel-controlled clinical trial [J]. Trials, 2021, 22(1): 75. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13063-021-05040-y
[101]	Wang H, Dong BQ, Wang G, et al. Multicenter randomized controlled trial of intensive silver needle therapy for non-specific low back pain [J]. Journal of Practical Traditional Chinese Internal Medicine, 2022, 36(2): 35-37. https://doi.org/10.13729/j.issn.1671-7813.Z20210669 (in Chinese).
[102]	Tao L, Yang F, Zhang L, et al. Systematic review and Meta-analysis of intradermal heat-needle therapy versus other acupuncture techniques for low back pain [J]. Journal of Emergency in Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2021, 30(11): 1891-1896. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-745X.2021.11.003 (in Chinese).
[103]	Wu H, Jin W, Zhou YM, et al. Randomized controlled trial of intradermal heat needle therapy for cold-dampness type low back pain [J]. Practical Clinical Journal of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, 2017, 17(1): 6-8. https://doi.org/10.13638/j.issn.1671-4040.2017.01.003 (in Chinese).
[104]	Shen WC, Jan YK, Liau BY, et al. Effectiveness of self-management of dry and wet cupping therapy for low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2022, 101(51): e32325. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000032325
[105]	Moura CC, Chaves ÉCL, Cardoso ACLR, et al. Cupping therapy and chronic back pain: systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Rev Lat Am Enfermagem, 2018, 26: e3094. https://doi.org/10.1590/1518-8345.2888.3094
[106]	Wang YT, Qi Y, Tang FY, et al. The effect of cupping therapy for low back pain: A meta-analysis based on existing randomized controlled trials [J]. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil, 2017, 30(6): 1187-1195. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-169736
[107]	Chen FQ, Ge JF, Leng YF, et al. Efficacy and safety of moxibustion for chronic low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. Complement Ther Clin Pract, 2020, 39: 101130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101130
[108]	Tian QM, Xu DM, Wu WZ, et al. Systematic evaluation of the efficacy of moxibustion for treating back pain in patients with primary osteoporosis [J]. Tianjin Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2018, 35(9): 684-690. https://doi.org/10.11656/j.issn.1672-1519.2018.09.13 (in Chinese).
[109]	Qin J, Zhang Y, Wu L, et al. Effect of Tai Chi alone or as additional therapy on low back pain: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2019, 98(37): e17099. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000017099
[110]	Zhang HJ, Sun WG, Tang LM, et al. Meta-analysis of Tai Chi intervention for non-specific low back pain [J]. Chinese Journal of Ethnomedicine and Ethnopharmacy, 2021, 30(14): 61-65, 70. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1007-8517.2021.14.zgmzmjyyzz202114015 (in Chinese).
[111]	Li X, Wang XB, Li TJ, et al. Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy of Tai Chi for low back pain [J]. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 2017, 27(4): 60-64. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1329.2017.04060 (in Chinese).
[112]	Yang J, Zhou X, Ma Q, et al. Efficacy and safety of Tuina for chronic nonspecific low back pain: A PRISMA-compliant systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2023, 102(9): e33018. https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000033018
[113]	Kumar S, Beaton K, Hughes T. The effectiveness of massage therapy for the treatment of nonspecific low back pain: a systematic review of systematic reviews [J]. Int J Gen Med, 2013, 6: 733-41. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S50243
[114]	Coulter ID, Crawford C, Hurwitz EL, et al. Manipulation and mobilization for treating chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Spine J, 2018, 18(5): 866-879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2018.01.013
[115]	Ruddock JK, Sallis H, Ness A, et al. Spinal Manipulation Vs Sham Manipulation for Nonspecific Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [J]. J Chiropr Med, 2016, 15(3): 165-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.04.014
[116]	Wang SL, Shen XF, Xu B, et al. Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy of Chinese herbal compound for discogenic low back pain [J]. Journal of Emergency in Traditional Chinese Medicine, 2022, 31(10): 1698-1703, 1712. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1004-745X.2022.10.002 (in Chinese).
[117]	Ge JF, Chen FQ, Ji L, et al. Meta-analysis of clinical efficacy of Shentong Zhuyu Decoction for lumbar disc herniation [J]. World Latest Medicine Information (Electronic Continuous Journal), 2020, 20(27): 24-27. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-3141.2020.27.010 (in Chinese).
[118]	Godley E, Smith MA. Efficacy of acupressure for chronic low back pain: A systematic review [J]. Complement Ther Clin Pract, 2020, 39: 101146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2020.101146
[119]	Xie G, Wang T, Tang X, et al. Acupoint Injection for Nonspecific Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Studies [J]. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med, 2020, 2020: 3976068. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/3976068
[120]	Migliorini F, Maffulli N, Eschweiler J, et al. The pharmacological management of chronic lower back pain [J]. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2021, 22(1): 109-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/14656566.2020.1817384
[121]	Price MR, Cupler ZA, Hawk C, et al. Systematic review of guideline-recommended medications prescribed for treatment of low back pain [J]. Chiropr Man Therap., 2022, 30(1): 26. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12998-022-00435-3
[122]	Chung JW, Zeng Y, Wong TK. Drug therapy for the treatment of chronic nonspecific low back pain: systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Pain Physician, 2013, 16(6): E685-704
[123]	Enthoven WT, Roelofs PD, Deyo RA, et al. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for chronic low back pain [J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2016, 2(2): CD012087. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012087
[124]	Hirase T, Hirase J, Ling J, et al. Duloxetine for the Treatment of Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review of Randomized Placebo-Controlled Trials [J]. Cureus, 2021, 13(5): e15169. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.15169
[125]	Tucker HR, Scaff K, McCloud T, et al. Harms and benefits of opioids for management of non-surgical acute and chronic low back pain: a systematic review [J]. Br J Sports Med, 2020, 54(11): 664. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099805
[126]	Nury E, Schmucker C, Nagavci B, et al. Efficacy and safety of strong opioids for chronic noncancer pain and chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analyses [J]. Pain, 2022, 163(4): 610-636. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002423
[127]	Migliorini F, Maffulli N, Baroncini A, et al. Opioids for chronic low back pain management: a Bayesian network meta-analysis [J]. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol, 2021, 14(5): 635-641. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512433.2021.1903316
[128]	Song L, Qiu P, Xu J, et al. The Effect of Combination Pharmacotherapy on Low Back Pain: A Meta-analysis [J]. Clin J Pain, 2018, 34(11): 1039-1046. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000622
[129]	Romanò CL, Romanò D, Lacerenza M. Antineuropathic and antinociceptive drugs combination in patients with chronic low back pain: a systematic review [J]. Pain Res Treat, 2012, 2012: 154781. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/154781
[130]	Mathieson S, Kasch R, Maher CG, et al. Combination Drug Therapy for the Management of Low Back Pain and Sciatica: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. J Pain, 2019, 20(1): 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2018.06.005
[131]	Tetsunaga T, Tetsunaga T, Tanaka M, et al. Efficacy of tramadol-acetaminophen tablets in low back pain patients with depression [J]. J Orthop Sci, 2015, 20(2): 281-6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00776-014-0674-4
[132]	Varrassi G, Hanna M, Coaccioli S, et al. DANTE Study: The First Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo and Active-Controlled, Parallel Arm Group Study Evaluating the Analgesic Efficacy and Safety of Dexketoprofen TrometAmol aNd Tramadol Hydrochloride Oral FixEd Dose Combination on Moderate to Severe Acute Pain in Patients with Acute Low Back Pain-Rationale and Design [J]. Pain Ther, 2022, 11(3): 1055-1070. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40122-022-00407-8
[133]	Moore RA, Barden J. Systematic review of dexketoprofen in acute and chronic pain [J]. BMC Clin Pharmacol, 2008, 8: 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6904-8-11
[134]	Rossi M, Ianigro G, Liberatoscioli G, et al. Eperisone versus tizanidine for treatment of chronic low back pain [J]. Minerva Med, 2012, 103(3): 143-9.
[135]	Bavage S, Durg S, Ali Kareem S, et al. Clinical efficacy and safety of eperisone for low back pain: A systematic literature review [J]. Pharmacol Rep, 2016, 68(5): 903-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharep.2016.05.003
[136]	Zhang JX, Zheng JP, Xie W, et al. Clinical study of tizanidine in the treatment of patients with discogenic low back pain [J]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 2021, 37(8): 970-973. https://doi.org/10.13699/j.cnki.1001-6821.2021.08.009 (in Chinese).
[137]	Chou R, Deyo R, Friedly J, et al. Systemic Pharmacologic Therapies for Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review for an American College of Physicians Clinical Practice Guideline [J]. Ann Intern Med, 2017, 166(7): 480-492. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-2458
[138]	Weng C, Xu J, Wang Q, et al. Efficacy and safety of duloxetine in osteoarthritis or chronic low back pain: a Systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. Osteoarthritis Cartilage, 2020, 28(6): 721-734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2020.03.001
[139]	Petzke F, Klose P, Welsch P, et al. Opioids for chronic low back pain: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy, tolerability and safety in randomized placebo-controlled studies of at least 4 weeks of double-blind duration [J]. Eur J Pain, 2020, 24(3): 497-517. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejp.1519
[140]	Abdel Shaheed C, Maher CG, Williams KA, et al. Efficacy, Tolerability, and Dose-Dependent Effects of Opioid Analgesics for Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [J]. JAMA Intern Med, 2016, 176(7): 958-68. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.1251
[141]	Boya C, Bansal D, Kanakagiri S, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Opioid Analgesics for the Management of Chronic Low Back Pain: An Evidence from Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis [J]. Pain Physician, 2021, 24(1): 73-82.
[142]	Lange B, Kuperwasser B, Okamoto A, et al. Efficacy and safety of tapentadol prolonged release for chronic osteoarthritis pain and low back pain [J]. Adv Ther, 2010, 27(6): 381-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-010-0036-3
[143]	Buynak R, Shapiro DY, Okamoto A, et al. Efficacy and safety of tapentadol extended release for the management of chronic low back pain: results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo- and active-controlled Phase III study [J]. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2010, 11(11): 1787-804. https://doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2010.497720
[144]	Cloutier C, Taliano J, O'Mahony W, et al. Controlled-release oxycodone and naloxone in the treatment of chronic low back pain: a placebo-controlled, randomized study [J]. Pain Res Manag, 2013, 18(2): 75-82. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/164609
[145]	Miller K, Yarlas A, Wen W, et al. Buprenorphine transdermal system and quality of life in opioid-experienced patients with chronic low back pain [J]. Expert Opin Pharmacother, 2013, 14(3): 269-77. https://doi.org/10.1517/14656566.2013.767331
[146]	Gordon A, Rashiq S, Moulin DE, et al. Buprenorphine transdermal system for opioid therapy in patients with chronic low back pain [J]. Pain Res Manag, 2010, 15(3): 169-78. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/216725
[147]	Enke O, New HA, New CH, et al. Anticonvulsants in the treatment of low back pain and lumbar radicular pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. CMAJ, 2018, 190(26): E786-E793. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.171333
[148]	Tatit RT, Poetscher AW, Oliveira CAC. Pregabalin and gabapentin for chronic low back pain without radiculopathy: a systematic review [J]. Arq Neuropsiquiatr, 2023, 81(6): 564-576. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0043-1764414
[149]	Duan XF, Yan F, He J. Clinical efficacy of tetrandrine tablets in the treatment of patients with sciatica [J]. Chinese Journal of Clinical Healthcare, 2013(5): 518-519. https://doi.org/10.3969/J.issn.1672-6790.2013.05.028 (in Chinese).
[150]	Sheng YG, Xia JH, Xu HB. Clinical observation on heat-sensitive herbal moxibustion combined with transdermal tetrandrine for lumbar disc herniation [J]. Shanghai Journal of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, 2018, 37(3): 320-323. https://doi.org/10.13460/j.issn.1005-0957.2018.03.0320 (in Chinese).
[151]	Huang HS, Guo HZ, Liu T, et al. Systematic evaluation of the efficacy and safety of Biqi Capsule in the treatment of lumbar disc herniation [J]. Clinical Journal of Chinese Medicine, 2023, 15(3): 108-113. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1674-7860.2023.03.026 (in Chinese).
[152]	Expert Group of Pain Management Specialized Training Program, National Center for Health Professions Education and Development, National Health Commission, Cheng ZX, Zhang Y, Liu Q, et al. Chinese guidelines for the treatment of chronic musculoskeletal pain with Chinese patent medicines (2023 edition) [J]. Chinese Journal of Painology, 2023, 19(1): 6-12. https://doi.org/10.3760/cma.j.cn101658-20230213-00019 (in Chinese).
[153]	Chen J, Zheng J, Chen M, et al. The Efficacy and Safety of Chinese Herbal Medicine Xianling Gubao Capsule Combined With Alendronate in the Treatment of Primary Osteoporosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 20 Randomized Controlled Trials [J]. Front Pharmacol, 2021, 12: 695832. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.695832
[154]	Cheng BR, Wu RY, Gao QY, et al. Chinese Proprietary Medicine Xianling Gubao Capsule for Osteoporosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials [J]. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 2022, 13: 870277. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2022.870277
[155]	Xie Y, Tu L, Zhang Y, et al. Efficacy and safety of Fengshi Gutong Capsule in patients with active ankylosing spondylitis: A 4-week randomized controlled, double-blinded, double-dummy trial [J]. J Ethnopharmacol, 2022, 285: 114731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2021.114731
[156]	Xu H, Han X, Song H, et al. Therapeutic effect of Tongluo Qutong plaster on patients with lumbar disc herniation [J]. World Latest Medicine Information, 2022, 22(22): 31-34. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-3141.2022.022.008 (in Chinese).
[157]	Hao X. Therapeutic effect observation of Qufeng Gutong gel plaster on chronic low back pain [J]. World of Healthy Living, 2022(22): 186-187. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-2269.2022.22.095 (in Chinese).
[158]	Xue JL, Suo XQ, Yan R, et al. Efficacy observation of Qufeng Gutong gel plaster in the treatment of chronic non-specific low back pain [J]. World Latest Medical Information (Electronic Continuous Journal), 2022, 22(95): 59-62. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-3141.2022.95.012 (in Chinese).
[159]	Gao ZM. Clinical observation of Danlu Tongdu tablets in the treatment of lumbar spinal stenosis [J]. Chinese Journal of Trauma and Disability Medicine, 2015(19): 92-94. https://doi.org/10.13214/j.cnki.cjotadm.2015.19.069 (in Chinese).
[160]	Duo J. Efficacy observation of Danlu Tongdu tablets in the treatment of lumbar disc herniation [J]. Chinese Journal of Modern Drug Application, 2015(12): 241-242. https://doi.org/10.14164/j.cnki.cn11-5581/r.2015.12.163 (in Chinese).
[161]	Wang T, Dai JB. Clinical observation of Panlongqi tablets combined with Tongdu Huoxue decoction for treating lumbar spinal stenosis with wind-cold-dampness obstruction pattern [J]. China Pharmaceuticals, 2019, 28(2): 64-66. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-4931.2019.02.021 (in Chinese).
[162]	Cheng Y. Clinical observation of Panlongqi tablets in treating cold-dampness type lumbar disc herniation [J]. Chinese Journal of Traditional Medical Traumatology & Orthopedics, 2012, 20(8): 61-62 (in Chinese).
[163]	Shi GY, Zhang GL, Yu F, et al. Multicenter clinical study of Huoxue Zhitong soft capsules in treating chronic soft tissue injury of the waist (Qi stagnation and blood stasis syndrome) [J]. China Pharmaceuticals, 2018(0): 6-7 (in Chinese).
[164]	Qin J, Cheng H. Clinical study of Gutong Tiegao plaster combined with traditional Chinese medicine directional penetration therapy for third lumbar transverse process syndrome [J]. Medical Information,2016, 29(5): 191-192. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1006-1959.2016.05.148 (in Chinese).
[165]	Day MA, Ward LC, Thorn BE, et al. Mechanisms of Mindfulness Meditation, Cognitive Therapy, and Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain [J]. Clin J Pain, 2020, 36(10): 740-749. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000862
[166]	Day MA, Thorn BE, Ehde DM, et al. Moderators of Mindfulness Meditation, Cognitive Therapy, and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Test of the Limit, Activate, and Enhance Model [J]. J Pain, 2020, 21(1-2): 161-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2019.06.006
[167]	Luo HY, Li QF, Zhao YL, et al. Effects of internet-based psychological interventions for patients with chronic low back pain: A meta-analysis [J]. Chinese Journal of Nursing, 2023, 58(19): 2409-2415. https://doi.org/10.3761/j.issn.0254-1769.2023.19.016 (in Chinese).
[168]	Ho EK, Chen L, Simic M, et al. Psychological interventions for chronic, non-specific low back pain: systematic review with network meta-analysis [J]. BMJ, 2022, 376: e067718. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2021-067718
[169]	Yang J, Lo WLA, Zheng F, et a. Evaluation of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Improving Pain, Fear Avoidance, and Self-Efficacy in Patients with Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. Pain Res Manag, 2022, 2022: 4276175. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/4276175
[170]	Richmond H, Hall AM, Copsey B, et al. The Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioural Treatment for Non-Specific Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. PLoS One, 2015, 10(8): e0134192. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0134192
[171]	Hall A, Richmond H, Copsey B, et al. Physiotherapist-delivered cognitive-behavioural interventions are effective for low back pain, but can they be replicated in clinical practice? A systematic review [J]. Disabil Rehabil, 2018, 40(1): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2016.1236155
[172]	Yang H, Wang X, Wang X, et al. Effect of mindfulness-based mind-body therapies in patients with non-specific low back pain-A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. Front Aging Neurosci, 2023, 15: 1148048. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2023.1148048
[173]	Smith SL, Langen WH. A Systematic Review of Mindfulness Practices for Improving Outcomes in Chronic Low Back Pain [J]. Int J Yoga, 2020, 13(3): 177-182. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijoy.IJOY_4_20
[174]	Soundararajan K, Prem V, Kishen TJ. The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction intervention on physical function in individuals with chronic low back pain: Systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials [J]. Complement Ther Clin Pract, 2022, 49: 101623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2022.101623
[175]	Cherkin DC, Sherman KJ, Balderson BH, et al. Effect of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction vs Cognitive Behavioral Therapy or Usual Care on Back Pain and Functional Limitations in Adults With Chronic Low Back Pain: A Randomized Clinical Trial [J]. JAMA, 2016, 315(12): 1240-9. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.2323
[176]	Lin TH, Tam KW, Yang YL, et al. Meditation-Based Therapy for Chronic Low Back Pain Management: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials [J]. Pain Med, 2022, 23(10): 1800-1811. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnac037
[177]	Garcia LM, Birckhead BJ, Krishnamurthy P, et al. An 8-Week Self-Administered At-Home Behavioral Skills-Based Virtual Reality Program for Chronic Low Back Pain: Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial Conducted During COVID-19 [J]. J Med Internet Res, 2021, 23(2): e26292. https://doi.org/10.2196/26292
[178]	Rohaj A, Bulaj G. Digital Therapeutics (DTx) Expand Multimodal Treatment Options for Chronic Low Back Pain: The Nexus of Precision Medicine, Patient Education, and Public Health [J]. Healthcare (Basel), 2023, 11(10): 1469. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11101469
[179]	Brea-Gómez B, Torres-Sánchez I, Ortiz-Rubio A, et al. Virtual Reality in the Treatment of Adults with Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials [J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2021, 18(22): 11806. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211806
[180]	Herrero P, Ríos-Asín I, Lapuente-Hernández D, et al. The Use of Sensors to Prevent, Predict Transition to Chronic and Personalize Treatment of Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review [J]. Sensors (Basel), 2023, 23(18): 7695. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23187695
[181]	Choi T, Heo S, Choi W, et al. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Effectiveness of Virtual Reality-Based Rehabilitation Therapy on Reducing the Degree of Pain Experienced by Individuals with Low Back Pain [J]. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2023, 20(4): 3502. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20043502
[182]	Bordeleau M, Stamenkovic A, Tardif PA, et al. The Use of Virtual Reality in Back Pain Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. J Pain, 2022, 23(2): 175-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2021.08.001
[183]	Lewkowicz D, Slosarek T, Wernicke S, et al. Digital Therapeutic Care and Decision Support Interventions for People With Low Back Pain: Systematic Review [J]. JMIR Rehabil Assist Technol, 2021, 8(4): e26612. https://doi.org/10.2196/26612
[184]	Du S, Liu W, Cai S, et al. The efficacy of e-health in the self-management of chronic low back pain: A meta analysis [J]. Int J Nurs Stud, 2020, 106: 103507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.103507
[185]	Lara-Palomo IC, Gil-Martínez E, Ramírez-García JD, et al. Efficacy of e-Health Interventions in Patients with Chronic Low-Back Pain: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis [J]. Telemed J E Health, 2022, 28(12): 1734-1752. https://doi.org/10.1089/tmj.2021.0599
[186]	Chen M, Wu T, Lv M, et al. Efficacy of Mobile Health in Patients With Low Back Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials [J]. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth, 2021, 9(6): e26095. https://doi.org/10.2196/26095
[187]	de Melo Santana B, Raffin Moura J, Martins de Toledo A, et al. Efficacy of mHealth Interventions for Improving the Pain and Disability of Individuals With Chronic Low Back Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth, 2023, 11: e48204. https://doi.org/10.2196/48204
[188]	Rintala A, Rantalainen R, Kaksonen A, et al. mHealth Apps for Low Back Pain Self-management: Scoping Review [J]. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth, 2022, 10(8): e39682. https://doi.org/10.2196/39682
[189]	Coe-O'Brien R, Joseph L, Kuisma R, et al. Outcome measures used in the smartphone applications for the management of low back pain: a systematic scoping review [J]. Health Inf Sci Syst, 2020, 8(1): 5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13755-019-0097-x
[190]	Villatoro-Luque FJ, Rodríguez-Almagro D, Aibar-Almazán A, et al. In non-specific low back pain, is an exercise program carried out through telerehabilitation as effective as one carried out in a physiotherapy center? A controlled randomized trial [J]. Musculoskelet Sci Pract, 2023, 65: 102765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msksp.2023.102765
[191]	Özden F, Sarı Z, Karaman ÖN, et al. The effect of video exercise-based telerehabilitation on clinical outcomes, expectation, satisfaction, and motivation in patients with chronic low back pain [J]. Ir J Med Sci, 2022, 191(3): 1229-1239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-021-02727-8
[192]	Bise CG, Cupler Z, Mathers S, et al. Face-to-face telehealth interventions in the treatment of low back pain: A systematic review [J]. Complement Ther Clin Pract, 2023, 50: 101671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2022.101671
[193]	Olivier TJ, Konda C, Pham T, et al. Clinical practice guidelines on interventional management of low back pain: A synthesis of recommendations [J]. PM R, 2023, 15(8): 1052-1063. https://doi.org/10.1002/pmrj.12930
[194]	Manchikanti L, Knezevic NN, Navani A, et al. Epidural Interventions in the Management of Chronic Spinal Pain: American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) Comprehensive Evidence-Based Guidelines [J]. Pain Physician, 2021, 24(S1): S27-S208.
[195]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, et al. A randomized, double-blind, active-controlled trial of fluoroscopic lumbar interlaminar epidural injections in chronic axial or discogenic low back pain: results of 2-year follow-up [J]. Pain Physician, 2013, 16(5): E491-504.
[196]	Ghai B, Bansal D, Kay JP, et al. Transforaminal versus parasagittal interlaminar epidural steroid injection in low back pain with radicular pain: a randomized, double-blind, active-control trial [J]. Pain Physician, 2014, 17(4): 277-90.
[197]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, McManus CD, et al. One-year results of a randomized, double-blind, active controlled trial of fluoroscopic caudal epidural injections with or without steroids in managing chronic discogenic low back pain without disc herniation or radiculitis [J]. Pain Physician, 2011, 14(1): 25-36.
[198]	Manchikanti L, Cash KA, Pampati V, et al. Transforaminal epidural injections in chronic lumbar disc herniation: a randomized, double-blind, active-control trial [J]. Pain Physician, 2014, 17(4): E489-501.
[199]	Meng H, Fei Q, Wang B, et al. Epidural injections with or without steroids in managing chronic low back pain secondary to lumbar spinal stenosis: a meta-analysis of 13 randomized controlled trials [J]. Drug Des Devel Ther, 2015, 9: 4657-67. https://doi.org/10.2147/DDDT.S85524
[200]	Singjie LC, Kusuma SA, Saleh I, et al. The Potency of Platelet-Rich Plasma for Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis of Randomized Controlled Trial [J]. Asian Spine J, 2023, 17(4): 782-789. https://doi.org/10.31616/asj.2022.0209
[201]	Ruiz-Lopez R, Tsai YC. A Randomized Double-Blind Controlled Pilot Study Comparing Leucocyte-Rich Platelet-Rich Plasma and Corticosteroid in Caudal Epidural Injection for Complex Chronic Degenerative Spinal Pain [J]. Pain Pract, 2020, 20(6): 639-646. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12893
[202]	Baroncini A, Maffulli N, Eschweiler J, et al. Management of facet joints osteoarthritis associated with chronic low back pain: A systematic review [J]. Surgeon, 2021, 19(6): e512-e518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surge.2020.12.004
[203]	Karkucak M, Batmaz İ, Kerimoglu S, et al. Comparison of clinical outcomes of ultrasonography-guided and blind local injections in facet syndrome: A 6-week randomized controlled trial [J]. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil, 2020, 33(3): 431-436. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-181447
[204]	Wu J, Zhou J, Liu C, et al. A Prospective Study Comparing Platelet-Rich Plasma and Local Anesthetic (LA)/Corticosteroid in Intra-Articular Injection for the Treatment of Lumbar Facet Joint Syndrome [J]. Pain Pract, 2017, 17(7): 914-924. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12544
[205]	Machado ES, Soares FP, Vianna de Abreu E, et al. Systematic Review of Platelet-Rich Plasma for Low Back Pain [J]. Biomedicines, 2023, 11(9): 2404. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11092404
[206]	Xuan Z, Yu W, Dou Y, et al. Efficacy of Platelet-rich Plasma for Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [J]. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg, 2020, 81(6): 529-534. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1709170
[207]	Sanapati J, Manchikanti L, Atluri S, et al. Do Regenerative Medicine Therapies Provide Long-Term Relief in Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis [J]. Pain Physician, 2018, 21(6): 515-540.
[208]	Akeda K, Fujiwara T, Takegami N, et al. Retrospective Analysis of Factors Associated with the Treatment Outcomes of Intradiscal Platelet-Rich Plasma-Releasate Injection Therapy for Patients with Discogenic Low Back Pain [J]. Medicina (Kaunas), 2023, 59(4): 640. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina59040640
[209]	Ju DG, Kanim LE, Bae HW. Is There Clinical Improvement Associated With Intradiscal Therapies? A Comparison Across Randomized Controlled Studies [J]. Global Spine J, 2022, 12(5): 756-764. https://doi.org/10.1177/2192568220963058
[210]	Sconza C, Leonardi G, Kon E, et al. Oxygen-ozone therapy for the treatment of low back pain: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials [J]. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci, 2021, 25(19): 6034-6046. https://doi.org/10.26355/eurrev_202110_26881
[211]	Andrade RR, Oliveira-Neto OB, Barbosa LT, et al. Efetividade da ozonioterapia comparada a outras terapias para dor lombar: revisão sistemática com metanálise de ensaios clínicos randomizados [Effectiveness of ozone therapy compared to other therapies for low back pain: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials] [J]. Braz J Anesthesiol, 2019, 69(5): 493-501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjan.2019.06.007
[212]	Guo X, Ding W, Liu L, et al. Intradiscal Methylene Blue Injection for Discogenic Low Back Pain: A Meta-Analysis [J]. Pain Pract, 2019, 19(1): 118-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12725
[213]	Deng M, Huang H, Ma YG, et al. Intradiskal Injection of Methylene Blue for Discogenic Back Pain: A Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials [J]. J Neurol Surg A Cent Eur Neurosurg, 2021, 82(2): 161-165. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0040-1721015
[214]	Kim WM, Lee HG, Jeong CW, et al. A randomized controlled trial of intra-articular prolotherapy versus steroid injection for sacroiliac joint pain [J]. J Altern Complement Med, 2010, 16(12): 1285-90. https://doi.org/10.1089/acm.2010.0031
[215]	Goodwin B, Averell N, Al-Shehab U, et al. Efficacy of platelet-rich plasma for sacroiliac joint dysfunction: a qualitative systematic review with pooled analysis [J]. Regen Med, 2023, 18(6): 505-514. https://doi.org/10.2217/rme-2022-0211
[216]	Chen AS, Solberg J, Smith C, et al. Intra-Articular Platelet Rich Plasma vs Corticosteroid Injections for Sacroiliac Joint Pain: A Double-Blinded, Randomized Clinical Trial [J]. Pain Med, 2022, 23(7): 1266-1271. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnab332
[217]	Singla V, Batra YK, Bharti N, et al. Steroid vs. Platelet-Rich Plasma in Ultrasound-Guided Sacroiliac Joint Injection for Chronic Low Back Pain [J]. Pain Pract, 2017, 17(6): 782-791. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12526
[218]	Li WS, Yan Q, Cong L. Comparison of Endoscopic Discectomy Versus Non-Endoscopic Discectomy for Symptomatic Lumbar Disc Herniation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. Global Spine J, 2022, 12(5): 1012-1026. https://doi.org/10.1177/21925682211020696
[219]	Noriega D, Marcia S, Theumann N, et al. A prospective, international, randomized, noninferiority study comparing an implantable titanium vertebral augmentation device versus balloon kyphoplasty in the reduction of vertebral compression fractures (SAKOS study) [J]. Spine J, 2019, 19(11): 1782-1795. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spinee.2019.07.009
[220]	Li H, An J, Zhang J, et al. Comparative efficacy of radiofrequency denervation in chronic low back pain: A systematic review and network meta-analysis [J]. Front Surg, 2022, 9: 899538. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsurg.2022.899538
[221]	Janapala RN, Manchikanti L, Sanapati MR, et al. Efficacy of Radiofrequency Neurotomy in Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. J Pain Res, 2021, 14: 2859-2891. https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S323362
[222]	Abrishamkar S, Kouchakzadeh M, Mirhosseini A, et al. Comparison of open surgical discectomy versus plasma-laser nucleoplasty in patients with single lumbar disc herniation [J]. J Res Med Sci, 2015, 20(12): 1133-7. https://doi.org/10.4103/1735-1995.172979
[223]	van Tilburg CW, Schuurmans FA, Stronks DL, et al. Randomized Sham-controlled Double-Blind Multicenter Clinical Trial to Ascertain the Effect of Percutaneous Radiofrequency Treatment for Sacroiliac Joint Pain: Three-month Results [J]. Clin J Pain, 2016, 32(11): 921-926. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000000351
[224]	Mekhail N, Eldabe S, Templeton E, et al. Pain Management Interventions for the Treatment of Chronic Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. Clin J Pain, 2023, 39(7): 349-364. https://doi.org/10.1097/AJP.0000000000001116
[225]	Fischgrund JS, Rhyne A, Franke J, et al. Intraosseous basivertebral nerve ablation for the treatment of chronic low back pain: a prospective randomized double-blind sham-controlled multi-center study [J]. Eur Spine J, 2018, 27(5): 1146-1156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-018-5496-1
[226]	Eckermann JM, Pilitsis JG, Vannaboutathong C, et al. Systematic Literature Review of Spinal Cord Stimulation in Patients With Chronic Back Pain Without Prior Spine Surgery [J]. Neuromodulation, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/ner.13519
[227]	Karri J, Orhurhu V, Wahezi S, et al. Comparison of Spinal Cord Stimulation Waveforms for Treating Chronic Low Back Pain: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [J]. Pain Physician, 2020, 23(5): 451-460
[228]	Hayek SM, Jones BA, Veizi E, et al. Efficacy of Continuous Intrathecal Infusion Trialing with a Mixture of Fentanyl and Bupivacaine in Chronic Low Back Pain Patients [J]. Pain Med, 2023, 24(7): 796-808. https://doi.org/10.1093/pm/pnac195
[229]	Gilligan C, Volschenk W, Russo M, et al. An implantable restorative-neurostimulator for refractory mechanical chronic low back pain: a randomized sham-controlled clinical trial [J]. Pain, 2021, 162(10): 2486-2498. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002258
[230]	D'Souza RS, Jin MY, Abd-Elsayed A. Peripheral Nerve Stimulation for Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review [J]. Curr Pain Headache Rep, 2023, 27(5): 117-128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11916-023-01109-2
[231]	Stefanova I, Currie AC, Newton RC, et al. A Meta-analysis of the Impact of Bariatric Surgery on Back Pain [J]. Obes Surg, 2020, 30(8): 3201-3207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11695-020-04713-y
[232]	Steffens D, Maher CG, Pereira LS, et al. Prevention of low back pain: a systematic review and metaanalysis [J]. JAMA Intern Med, 2016, 176(2): 199208. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.7431
[233]	Zhang TT, Liu Z, Liu YL, et al. Obesity as a Risk Factor for Low Back Pain: A Meta-Analysis [J]. Clin Spine Surg, 2018, 31(1): 22-27. https://doi.org/10.1097/BSD.0000000000000468
[234]	Shiri R, Falah-Hassani K. Does leisure time physical activity protect against low back pain? Systematic review and meta-analysis of 36 prospective cohort studies [J]. Br J Sports Med, 2017, 51(19): 1410-1418. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2016-097352
[235]	Hernandez-Lucas P, Leirós-Rodríguez R, Lopez-Barreiro J, et al. Is the combination of exercise therapy and health education more effective than usual medical care in the prevention of non-specific back pain? A systematic review with meta-analysis [J]. Ann Med, 2022, 54(1): 3107-3116. https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2022.2140453
[236]	Hernandez-Lucas P, Leirós-Rodríguez R, Lopez-Barreiro J, et al. Prevention of non-specific back pain through exercise and education: A systematic review and meta-analysis [J]. J Back Musculoskelet Rehabil, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3233/BMR-230252
[237]	Pergolizzi JV Jr, LeQuang JA. Rehabilitation for Low Back Pain: A Narrative Review for Managing Pain and Improving Function in Acute and Chronic Conditions [J]. Pain Ther, 2020, 9(1): 83-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40122-020-00149-5
[238]	Hayden JA, Wilson MN, Riley RD, et al. Individual recovery expectations and prognosis of outcomes in non-specific low back pain: prognostic factor review [J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2019, 2019(11): CD011284. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011284.pub2

Cite This Article

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Cheng, Z., Liu, X., Lu, Y., Ma, K., Huang, D., et al. (2025). A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition). International Journal of Pain Research, 1(4), 107-131. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Cheng, Z.; Liu, X.; Lu, Y.; Ma, K.; Huang, D., et al. A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition). . 2025, 1(4), 107-131. doi: 10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Cheng Z, Liu X, Lu Y, Ma K, Huang D, et al. A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition). . 2025;1(4):107-131. doi: 10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14,
  author = {Zhi-Xiang Cheng and Xian-Guo Liu and Yan Lu and Ke Ma and Dong Huang and Qing Liu and Xiao-Qiu Yang and Li-Juan Lu and Tang-Hua Liu and Lin Wang and Jin-Feng Liu and Bao-Juan Zhang and Yan-Qing Liu},
  title = {A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition)
},
  journal = {International Journal of Pain Research},
  volume = {1},
  number = {4},
  pages = {107-131},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijpr.20250104.14},
  abstract = {Background: Low back pain (LBP) is the leading cause of disability worldwide, severely impairing patients' quality of life, consuming substantial healthcare resources, and increasing medical costs while reducing productivity. Low back pain has become the leading cause of disability worldwide and a major global public health issue. Objective: To enhance the ability of diagnosis and treatment for LBP to meet the needs of clinical diagnosis and treatment. Main ideas: Based on high quality evidence based medical research on the diagnosis and treatment of LBP published domestically and internationally between January 2010 and December 2023, the expert group of the Pain Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Special Capacity Enhancement Project of the National Health Commission of China's Capacity Building and Continuing Education Centerhas formed recommendations for common treatment methods through rigorous argumentation and expert voting, to provide references for standardized diagnosis and treatment of LBP. This guideline adopts GRADE methodology to evaluate the level of evidence and strength of recommendation for the treatments of common chronic specific low back pain (cSLBP) and chronic non-specific low back pain (cNSLBP). Conclusion: LBP is characterized by high prevalence, significant disability rates, and frequent recurrence, imposing substantial burdens on individuals, families, and society. For patients, improving understanding of cLBP, practicing effective self-management, and actively cooperating with treatment are crucial for disease prognosis. Healthcare providers must enhance patient education and clinical competencies while strictly adhering to diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for comprehensive cLBP management. Policymakers and academic organizations should focus on developing evidence-based clinical guidelines, strengthening healthcare system oversight, and promoting widespread implementation of standardized cLBP care protocols.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition)

AU  - Zhi-Xiang Cheng
AU  - Xian-Guo Liu
AU  - Yan Lu
AU  - Ke Ma
AU  - Dong Huang
AU  - Qing Liu
AU  - Xiao-Qiu Yang
AU  - Li-Juan Lu
AU  - Tang-Hua Liu
AU  - Lin Wang
AU  - Jin-Feng Liu
AU  - Bao-Juan Zhang
AU  - Yan-Qing Liu
Y1  - 2025/10/29
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
T2  - International Journal of Pain Research
JF  - International Journal of Pain Research
JO  - International Journal of Pain Research
SP  - 107
EP  - 131
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
AB  - Background: Low back pain (LBP) is the leading cause of disability worldwide, severely impairing patients' quality of life, consuming substantial healthcare resources, and increasing medical costs while reducing productivity. Low back pain has become the leading cause of disability worldwide and a major global public health issue. Objective: To enhance the ability of diagnosis and treatment for LBP to meet the needs of clinical diagnosis and treatment. Main ideas: Based on high quality evidence based medical research on the diagnosis and treatment of LBP published domestically and internationally between January 2010 and December 2023, the expert group of the Pain Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Special Capacity Enhancement Project of the National Health Commission of China's Capacity Building and Continuing Education Centerhas formed recommendations for common treatment methods through rigorous argumentation and expert voting, to provide references for standardized diagnosis and treatment of LBP. This guideline adopts GRADE methodology to evaluate the level of evidence and strength of recommendation for the treatments of common chronic specific low back pain (cSLBP) and chronic non-specific low back pain (cNSLBP). Conclusion: LBP is characterized by high prevalence, significant disability rates, and frequent recurrence, imposing substantial burdens on individuals, families, and society. For patients, improving understanding of cLBP, practicing effective self-management, and actively cooperating with treatment are crucial for disease prognosis. Healthcare providers must enhance patient education and clinical competencies while strictly adhering to diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for comprehensive cLBP management. Policymakers and academic organizations should focus on developing evidence-based clinical guidelines, strengthening healthcare system oversight, and promoting widespread implementation of standardized cLBP care protocols.

VL  - 1
IS  - 4
ER  -

Copy | Download

Author Information

Zhi-Xiang Cheng

Department of Painology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0867-685X
Xian-Guo Liu

Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4352-8687
Yan Lu

Department of Painology, Xijing Hospital Affiliated to Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2868-2352
Ke Ma

Department of Painology, Xinhua Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5603-9321
Dong Huang

Department of Painology, The Third Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4880-2438
Qing Liu

Department of Painology, The Affiliated Traditional Chinese Medicine Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3733-9078
Xiao-Qiu Yang

Department of Painology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3108-1029
Li-Juan Lu

Department of Painology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6571-8529
Tang-Hua Liu

Pain Research Institute of Zhongguancun Zhongmei Precision Medical Technology Research Institute, Beijing, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8382-9161
Lin Wang

Department of Painology, The Affiliated Hospital of Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China

http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5438-0932
Jin-Feng Liu

Department of Painology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China

http://orcid.org/0009-0001-8921-6478
Bao-Juan Zhang

Department of Painology, The First People's Hospital of Jining City, Jining, China

http://orcid.org/0009-0004-9084-6786
Yan-Qing Liu

Department of Painology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

Contact Email

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7347-0789

Download PDF

Submit an Article

Sections

Plain Text BibTeX RIS

APA Style

Cheng, Z., Liu, X., Lu, Y., Ma, K., Huang, D., et al. (2025). A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition). International Journal of Pain Research, 1(4), 107-131. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14

Copy | Download

ACS Style

Cheng, Z.; Liu, X.; Lu, Y.; Ma, K.; Huang, D., et al. A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition). . 2025, 1(4), 107-131. doi: 10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14

Copy | Download

AMA Style

Cheng Z, Liu X, Lu Y, Ma K, Huang D, et al. A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition). . 2025;1(4):107-131. doi: 10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14

Copy | Download

@article{10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14,
  author = {Zhi-Xiang Cheng and Xian-Guo Liu and Yan Lu and Ke Ma and Dong Huang and Qing Liu and Xiao-Qiu Yang and Li-Juan Lu and Tang-Hua Liu and Lin Wang and Jin-Feng Liu and Bao-Juan Zhang and Yan-Qing Liu},
  title = {A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition)
},
  journal = {International Journal of Pain Research},
  volume = {1},
  number = {4},
  pages = {107-131},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijpr.20250104.14},
  abstract = {Background: Low back pain (LBP) is the leading cause of disability worldwide, severely impairing patients' quality of life, consuming substantial healthcare resources, and increasing medical costs while reducing productivity. Low back pain has become the leading cause of disability worldwide and a major global public health issue. Objective: To enhance the ability of diagnosis and treatment for LBP to meet the needs of clinical diagnosis and treatment. Main ideas: Based on high quality evidence based medical research on the diagnosis and treatment of LBP published domestically and internationally between January 2010 and December 2023, the expert group of the Pain Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Special Capacity Enhancement Project of the National Health Commission of China's Capacity Building and Continuing Education Centerhas formed recommendations for common treatment methods through rigorous argumentation and expert voting, to provide references for standardized diagnosis and treatment of LBP. This guideline adopts GRADE methodology to evaluate the level of evidence and strength of recommendation for the treatments of common chronic specific low back pain (cSLBP) and chronic non-specific low back pain (cNSLBP). Conclusion: LBP is characterized by high prevalence, significant disability rates, and frequent recurrence, imposing substantial burdens on individuals, families, and society. For patients, improving understanding of cLBP, practicing effective self-management, and actively cooperating with treatment are crucial for disease prognosis. Healthcare providers must enhance patient education and clinical competencies while strictly adhering to diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for comprehensive cLBP management. Policymakers and academic organizations should focus on developing evidence-based clinical guidelines, strengthening healthcare system oversight, and promoting widespread implementation of standardized cLBP care protocols.
},
 year = {2025}
}

Copy | Download

TY  - JOUR
T1  - A Chinese Guideline for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Chronic LOW Back Pain (2024 Edition)

AU  - Zhi-Xiang Cheng
AU  - Xian-Guo Liu
AU  - Yan Lu
AU  - Ke Ma
AU  - Dong Huang
AU  - Qing Liu
AU  - Xiao-Qiu Yang
AU  - Li-Juan Lu
AU  - Tang-Hua Liu
AU  - Lin Wang
AU  - Jin-Feng Liu
AU  - Bao-Juan Zhang
AU  - Yan-Qing Liu
Y1  - 2025/10/29
PY  - 2025
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
T2  - International Journal of Pain Research
JF  - International Journal of Pain Research
JO  - International Journal of Pain Research
SP  - 107
EP  - 131
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijpr.20250104.14
AB  - Background: Low back pain (LBP) is the leading cause of disability worldwide, severely impairing patients' quality of life, consuming substantial healthcare resources, and increasing medical costs while reducing productivity. Low back pain has become the leading cause of disability worldwide and a major global public health issue. Objective: To enhance the ability of diagnosis and treatment for LBP to meet the needs of clinical diagnosis and treatment. Main ideas: Based on high quality evidence based medical research on the diagnosis and treatment of LBP published domestically and internationally between January 2010 and December 2023, the expert group of the Pain Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Special Capacity Enhancement Project of the National Health Commission of China's Capacity Building and Continuing Education Centerhas formed recommendations for common treatment methods through rigorous argumentation and expert voting, to provide references for standardized diagnosis and treatment of LBP. This guideline adopts GRADE methodology to evaluate the level of evidence and strength of recommendation for the treatments of common chronic specific low back pain (cSLBP) and chronic non-specific low back pain (cNSLBP). Conclusion: LBP is characterized by high prevalence, significant disability rates, and frequent recurrence, imposing substantial burdens on individuals, families, and society. For patients, improving understanding of cLBP, practicing effective self-management, and actively cooperating with treatment are crucial for disease prognosis. Healthcare providers must enhance patient education and clinical competencies while strictly adhering to diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for comprehensive cLBP management. Policymakers and academic organizations should focus on developing evidence-based clinical guidelines, strengthening healthcare system oversight, and promoting widespread implementation of standardized cLBP care protocols.

VL  - 1
IS  - 4
ER  -

Copy | Download