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Research Article | | Peer-Reviewed

Physico-chemical Quality and Diversity of Cysts of Enteropathogenic Protozoa in Water from Wells and Boreholes in the City of Douala, Cameroon

Kapso Tchouankep Mireille*,  Mbog Therese Diazine,  Chinche Sylvie Belengfe,  Koji Ernest,  Nguepidjo Gilbert,  Teukam Soh Willy,  Tonmeu Douyong Chimene Sandrine,  Teufack Elisabeth,  Tindo Maurice,  Ajeagah Gideon,  Lehman Leopold Gustave,  Akono Ntonga Patrick
Published in International Journal of Sustainable Development Research (Volume 12, Issue 2)
Received: 27 January 2026     Accepted: 1 June 2026     Published: 26 June 2026
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Abstract

In developing countries, access to drinking water in urban areas is limited. People living in certain neighbourhoods rely on wells (W) and boreholes (B) for their water needs. The aim of this study was to assess the physico-chemical and biological quality, and in particular the diversity of enteropathogenic protozoa present in this commonly used water in the city of Douala. Bi-monthly water samples were collected at 12 water points from July 2023 to March 2024. The physicochemical analyses consisted of measuring temperature, pH, salinity and total dissolved solids using a Water quality tester (WQT) multimeter model EZ-9909SP. Protozoans were isolated by direct slide staining, tube staining and concentration methods before observation under a light microscope at 40X magnification. The results show that the groundwater studied is acidic (pH =5.6±0.07 UC), with a salinity of up to 0.3 USP and rich in Total dissolved solids (TDS) (86 to 400 ppm). Biological analyses revealed the presence of 4 groups of protozoa and 11 species. Enteric protozoan cysts were mainly represented by rhizopods, with mean densities of 116 ± 23 cysts/L in well W1 and 96 ± 37 cysts/L in well W3. In well W6, flagellates reached a peak of 40 ± 6 cysts/L. In the well water, ciliates were virtually absent, while rhizopod cysts were more abundant in B1 (60 cysts/L) and B6 (34 cysts/L). Sporulated forms were present in the borehole water with an average density ranging from 14 (B1) cysts/L to 32 cysts/L (B5). On a time plan, the highest abundance was recorded in the dry season. Significant positive correlations were observed between flagellate viability and TDS (r= 0.324; p=0.000). Ciliates were significantly and positively correlated with salinity (r= 0.324; p=0.000). Rhizopods are inversely correlated to TDS (r= -0.181; p=0.030). The exogenous matter brought in by pollution considerably increases the adherence of cysts in biofilms and hence their abundance. Analysis has identified pH non-compliance as a critical and widespread water quality issue affecting all sampled wells and boreholes during both the rainy and dry seasons As recommendation, to suspend use of W3 for direct drinking water until pH correction is implemented. W3 recorded the lowest pH (~4.0–4.5), representing the highest health risk. Advise boiling and pH correction prior to consumption until permanent treatment is in place. Deploy pH correction units as an emergency measure at W1–W5 and all borehole sites.

Published in International Journal of Sustainable Development Research (Volume 12, Issue 2)
DOI 10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14
Page(s) 124-132
Creative Commons

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.

Copyright

Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group
Previous article
Keywords

Cysts, Protozoa, Physicochemical, Groundwater, Douala, Cameroon

1. Introduction
Access to drinking water is a key factor in a population's socio-economic and environmental development
[1]
. In Cameroon, although more than 80% of large cities such as Douala are equipped with drinking water supply systems
[2]
, some households do not have continuous access
[3]
. Other sources, such as wells and boreholes, are frequently used for domestic chores, cooking, personal hygiene and even drinking. This is not without risk to the health of city dwellers
[4]
. It is a common phenomenon in different communities that takes us back to Sustainable Development Goal 6; to ensure universal and equitable access to sustainably managed water and sanitation services
[5]
. The standards to be met are reasonable requirements to reduce risks of contamination and protect consumer health
[6, 7]
. The compliance of these waters with the Cameroonian standard could be questioned due to several hydrological factors such as poor wastewater run-off due to the relief of the coastal zone and anarchic urban and industrial development
[8]
. These conditions encourage the proliferation of germs that cause water-borne diseases. Some of them proliferate very rapidly when these waters are exposed to various organic or chemical pollutants
[9, 10]
. Over the last 50 years, infections linked to waterborne diseases have been reported to cause the most morbidity in the population
[11]
. Indeed, water is one of the most important environmental parameters of human morbidity through waterborne diseases
[12]
. This study aimed to assess the physicochemical and biological quality of groundwater in a few densely populated districts of the city of Douala. The microorganisms studied were enteric protozoa. These are protozoans whose forms of resistance are found in aquatic environments. Their distribution is ubiquitous and they have been found in freshwater samples on all continents
[13]
.
2. Materials and Methods
The study took place in the city of Douala, a coastal area in the Wouri Department, on the banks of the main Wouri river. The climate is characterised by an average rainfall of 3512 mm/year, hot and humid of the equatorial type with two seasons, a long rainy season running from February to mid-November, and a short dry season running from November to February
[14, 15]
. Geographically, the city of Douala covers an area of approximately 190 km2 and occupies a site of lagoons and swamps with an almost flat topography, where rainwater and wastewater run-off present problems due to the flaring of the Wouri and the lack of cleaning and maintenance of many of the city's natural channels and drainage
[16]
. 6 wells and 6 boreholes were selected for this study. Wells W1, W2 and W3 are located in the Makepe district. The sources of pollution around these wells are household water, drainage, dwellings and puddles. These wells are characterised by the absence of curbstone covers, except for well W2, which is covered with old metal sheets. Wells W4, W5 and W6 are located in the Ndogbong district, downstream from the university campus. They are located on marshy ground on either side of the industrial effluent drainage. Small copings with rusty metal covers characterise these three wells. Borehole B1 is located in the Makepe district, borehole B2 is located near the Ndogpassi market and borehole B3 is found in Nyalla. Boreholes B4, B5 and B6 are located in Missoke and Ngodi-bakoko respectively.
Table 1. Geographical coordinates and altitudes of the wells and boreholes studied in the city of Douala.

GPS coordinates and altitudes of the water points

Wells

Latitude (°N)

Longitude (°E)

Altitude (m)

Borehole

Latitude (°N)

Longitude (°E)

Altitude (m)

W1

4°3’39.2’’

9°44’30.5’’

9

B1

4°3’36.6’’

9°44’31.5’’

12

W2

4°3’34.6’’

9°44’27.3’’

19

B2

4°1’31.1’’

9°44’8.5’’

10

W3

4°3’33.6’’

9°44’27.5’’

19

B3

3°59’4.2’’

9°47’16.5’’

26

W4

4°3’24.7’’

9°44’23.4’’

13

B4

3°59’4.3’’

9°47’17.1’’

26

W5

4°3’21.0’’

9°44’24.9’’

21

B5

3°59’1.4’’

9°47’8.6’’

32

W6

4°3’22.0”

9°44’25.9”

23

B6

3°59’0.0’’

9°47’13.4’’

35
The morphometric characteristics of the wells and boreholes were measured and recorded in Table 2 below. These include the diameter of the curbstone or the side depending on its shape, the height of the curbstone, the piezometric level and the thickness of the water layer. For boreholes or improved wells, the depth was measured as well as the height of the water outlet to the ground and the pump system used. The diameter of the wells varied from 0.80 to 1.35 m. The piezometric level varied from 0.97 to 6.84 m, indicating the depth of the water table. The height of the water column varies between 0.6 and 3.79 m, the depth of the boreholes varied from 23 to 69 m (Table 3), and the height of the tap point in relation to the ground varied from 0.1 to 0.94 m. These parameters are recorded in Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. Morphometric parameters of wells.

Parameters

W1

W2

W3

W4

W5

W6

Height of curbstone (m)

1

0.68

1.81

0.43

0.45

0.61

Piezometric level (m)

2.2

5.1

6.84

2.2

1.06

0.97

Water colon (m)

3.4

3.79

3.23

1.19

0.6

0.65

Diameter/Side (m)

0.9

1.35

1.24

0.8

0.98

0.97
Table 3. Morphometric parameters of boreholes.

Parameters

B1

B2

B3

B4

B5

B6

Depth (m)

36

23

48

51

47

69

Height (m)

0.30

0.26

0.94

0.67

0.10

0.05
Sampling was carried out for 6 months (from October 2023 to March 2024) with a frequency of two times per month to maximise the collection of microorganisms. Some physicochemical parameters were measured in the field using a WQT multiparameter model EZ-9909SP, these were temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, salinity and total dissolved solids (TDS)
[17]
. Water samples for biology were collected in 1L glass bottles and brought back to the laboratory in a refrigerated chamber at 4°C in the dark
[18]
. The glass bottles used were first sterilized in the laboratory in an autoclave at 120°C for 15 minutes. In the field, these bottles were rinsed twice with the sample water before sampling
[19]
. The bottles were filled to the brim to prevent air/water exchange. Sampling was done early in the morning before sunrise. In the laboratory, the samples were left to sediment at room temperature for 24 hours
[20]
, after which the pellet was quantified and fixed. This pellet was observed progressively until exhaustion. On-slide staining was performed with several dyes: Lugol's, methylene blue and Merthiolate-Iodine-Formol (MIF) solution before observation under a Radical light microscope, model RTH-1 with Xploviewer version 2.0 camera at objective 40
[21]
. The modified Faust (1938) flotation concentration technique was also used. To do this, the sample to be observed was prepared by introducing 6 ml of pellet into a tube, adding 3 ml of zinc sulphate and 3 ml of dye. The tube was then centrifuged, and the supernatant, which is the parasite-rich layer, was observed under the microscope. Cysts were identified using identification keys and publications
[21-23]
. The organisms were counted using the formula proposed by
[19]
. The non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test (H test) was used to verify the significance of variance differences in the abiotic parameters and the densities of the biological variables, relative to the distribution of the organisms collected. Spearman's Rho rank correlation coefficient was calculated to measure the degree of linkage between abiotic variables, biological variables and abiotic and biological variables. These tests were carried out using SPSS version 20.0. In this study, hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) was used to group the stations according to their abiotic similarities and the similarity of the organisms collected based on average densities. The Euclidean distance used in this bottom-up classification analysis is an ordinal scale from 0 to 10, and Ward's method was used as the aggregation criteria
[23, 24]
. This was done using paleontological and natural science statistics software (PAST)
 [24]
.
3. Results
3.1. Physicochemical Characteristics of the Water
Water temperature ranged from 26.9 (W2) to 28°C (W6) for well water and from 26.4 (W6) to 28.4°C (B4, B2) for borehole water. The water temperature should normally be below 23°C according to the standards. A significant seasonal difference in well water temperature was observed (p < 0.0001) according to the Kruskal Wallis H-test (Figure 1A and 1B). Total dissolved solids (TDS) levels ranged from 86 ppm to 400 ppm, with the highest value obtained in the DS at well W6 and the lowest at well W4 and between 19 ppm and 87 ppm in boreholes, with the highest value obtained in B1 in RS and the lowest in B2 in RS (Figure 1C and 1D). Standards recommend 50 to 300 ppm of TDS for drinking water.
Figure 1. Spatial and temporal variations in temperature (A and B) and total dissolved solids (C and D) in well and borehole water.
Generally, salinity varied between 0.01 (W4) and 0.2 ppt (W2) in well water, with the highest value recorded in well W2 and the lowest in the well W4 in the rainy season, and between 0.0001 (B4) and 0.025 ppt (B5) in the boreholes, with the highest value recorded in B5 during the RS and B4 in the DS (Figure 2A and 2B), with an average of 0.01±0.006 ppt. Salinity levels in all samples remain well below the WHO/EPA threshold of 0.5 ppt for drinking water.
The pH ranged from 3.7 to 8.5 in the wells. The highest value recorded was at well W6 and the lowest at well W3 in RS and between 4.2 and 8.1 in boreholes, with the highest value recorded at B2 and the lowest at B1 in RS (Figures 2C and 2D. Very acidic pH levels were recorded in well and borehole water, the minimum acceptable value is 6. However, there was no significant seasonal difference according to the Kruskal Wallis H test for these 2 parameters (p > 0.05).
Figure 2. Spatial and temporal variations in salinity (A and B) and pH (C and D) of well and borehole water.
3.2. Diversity of Enteropathogenic Protozoans Isolated
The biological results show cystic forms of enteropathogenic protozoans represented by the genera Chilomastix sp. (0 to 28 cysts/L), Giardia sp. (2 to 14 cysts/L) (Flagellates), the genus Balantidium sp. (Ciliate) (0 to 8 cysts/L), Entamoeba sp. (0 to 55 cysts/L) Iodamoeba sp. (2 to 47 cysts/L), Endolimax sp. (0 to 11 cysts/L), Blastocystis sp. and Pseudolimax sp. (Rhizopoda) with spatial averages of 17 and 47 cysts/L, and the genera Cyclospora sp., Isospora sp. from the group of spore-forming protozoa (21 cysts/L). The mean abundances of each species in the wells are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Spatial mean abundances by species in the wells.

Protozoa groups

Species (cell/L)

W1

W2

W3

W4

W5

W6

Rhizopods

Entamoeba sp.

55± 11

6± 1.5

47± 19.1

4±1.1

24±14.5

11±8

Endolimax sp.

11± 3

3± 2.2

9± 4.1

2±0.12

6±2.7

0

Iodamoeba sp.

47± 7.5

4± 0.3

23±11.5

3±1.9

3±0.5

2±1.1

Blastocystis sp.

3± 2.1

2± 1.02

17±3.1

5±0.1

2±0.5

6±4.1

Flagellates

Giardia sp.

14± 3

2± 0.3

6±1.5

3±0.7

9±3.6

12±5.7

Chilomastix sp.

12± 2.1

0

4±0.1

3±0.3

8±1.9

28±10.8

Ciliates

Balantidium sp.

8± 1.8

0

0

1±0.2

7±1.4

9±4.3

Sporulates

Cyclospora sp.

0

2± 2.2

7±3.2

2±0.1

11± 5.4

2±0.3

Isospora sp.

4± 1.2

2± 1.2

16±3.1

0

13±2.3

21±7.3
Table 5 below shows the spatial variations in mean abundance for the species identified in the boreholes. Borehole B1 has the highest number of cysts. All groups are represented and all borehole water contains cysts (Table 5). The rhizopod group is strongly represented by Endolimax sp. (17±6.62 cysts/L) in borehole B1; the flagellate group is strongly represented by Chilomastix sp. (13±6.96 cysts/L) in borehole B1; the spore-forming group is represented by Cyclospora sp. (16±5.41 cysts/L) also in borehole B1.
Table 5. Spatial mean abundances by species in borehole water.

Protozoa

Boreholes

Groups

Species (cell/L)

B1

B2

B3

B4

B5

B6

Rhizopodes

Entamoeba sp.

11± 5.7

4±1.33

13±5.9

1±0.1

0

4±1

Endolimax sp.

17± 6.62

6±2.14

7±1.9

0

0

7±3

Iodamoeba sp

12± 5.06

4±1.32

6±0.1

1± 0.7

1±1.4

5±1.8

Blastocystis sp.

3± 0.6

1±0.6

0

3±1.21

4±2

0

Flagellates

Giardia sp.

4±2.8

7±2.4

3±0.3

5±2.1

6±2.1

5±2.01

Chilomastis sp.

13±6.96

1±0.76

8±3.2

7±2.9

3±1.1

4±1.7

Ciliates

Balantidium sp.

2± 0.51

5±2.1

1±0.13

6± 2.7

9±4.2

3±1.6

Sporulates

Cyclospora sp.

16±5.41

21±11.3

9±4.1

13±7.1

11±5.3

16±9

Isospora sp.

12±5.87

6±2.3

8±3.3

3±1.3

13±4.3

4±1
3.3. Correlation Between Biological and Physicochemical Variables Measured
With a 1% threshold risk, there were significant correlations between pH and salinity (r = 0.208; p = 0.000) and TDS and salinity (r = 0.463; p = 0.000). There were also negative correlations between temperature and salinity (r = -0.285; p = 0.003). Some correlations between protozoa groups identified and the physico-chemical variables were observed between flagellate density, electrical conductivity (r= 0.427; p=0.000) and TDS (r= 0.339; p=0.000) at the 1% level. Ciliates were significantly and positively correlated with TDS (r= 0.324; p=0.000) and electrical conductivity (r= 0.324; p=0.000) at 1%. Rhizopods are inversely correlated with TDS at 1% (r= -0.181; p=0.030). With regards to the species, the correlations were observed between the genus Entamoeba and electric conductivity (r= 0.255; p=0.0002), TDS (r= 0.164; p=0.049). The flagella Chilomastix sp. Was inversely linked to TDS (r= -0.271; p=0.0001) and to salinity (r= -0.202; p=0.015). The Cilia Balantidium was correlated to temperature (r= 0.20; p=0.017) and to pH (r= -0.235; p=0.0005).
The hierarchical classification analysis performed based on physicochemical and biological parameters shows the similarities between the sampling points and enabled the dendrograms shown in Figure 3 to be drawn up. The Bray Curtis index together with the dendrogram show a 2 by 2 grouping of wells: [W6-W2, W3-W1, W4-W5] with 58%, 66% and 75% similarity respectively (Figure 3A). As for the boreholes, B2 stands out from the others because of its very high level of contamination.
Figure 3. Hierarchical classification analysis (A) wells (B) boreholes.
4. Discussion
The height of the curbstone varied from 0.43 to 1 m. The WHO (2004) minimum standard height is 0.5 m. Wells W4 and W5 had a lower curbstone height. The average temperature of the water sampled, which remained close to ambient temperature, reflects the shallow nature of these aquifers, which are subject to the direct influence of water seepage, their main means of renewal. They are therefore more exposed to pollution
[25]
. The average pH values indicate that the groundwater sampled tends to be acidic since 94% of samples have a pH below the minimum value of 6.5 set by NC 207
[26]
. An acidic pH would indicate the presence of pollutants in the water or strong mineralising activity by microorganisms
[27]
. The positive correlations between total dissolved solids and salinity would be because these parameters both describe the inorganic salts present in the solution and would indicate an external contribution of anions
[4]
.
The presence of enteric protozoa in the analysed water indicates faecal contamination. This could be due to diffusion by infiltration or lateral diffusion
[20, 28]
through the porosities of the soil containing dirty water, its run-off (as these wells do not comply with construction standards), or direct contamination of the water table by unclean objects. Their pathogenic power is thought to cause diseases such as diarrhoea, amoebiasis and gastroenteritis
[29]
. These germs are of health interest because of the morbidity and immunodepression that would increase the number of crisis cases and complications with high mortality and morbidity in developing countries
[9, 30, 31]
. The presence of germs in all the sampling points reflects the seriousness of the state of pollution of these waters. A worrying health risk linked to the advanced state of microbiological pollution of groundwater in the cities of Douala and Yaounde has also been revealed by
[16, 19]
and water-related enteric diseases are the most prevalent in households.
The dendrogram (Figure 3) based on the results obtained classify the sampling points according to the following ascending order of pollution: (W1), (W5, W3), (B1, B3) and (B2). However, from a pathogenic point of view, the other water points, although being the least polluted, would be the most to be careful with, as high values of certain physicochemical and microbiological parameters were recorded which does not guarantee their potability.
No sampling point consistently met the WHO, EU, or US EPA minimum pH standard of 6.5 for drinking water. This acidic condition heightens the risk of heavy metal leaching, reduces disinfection efficacy, and renders the water unfit for potable use in its current state. TDS levels are generally acceptable, though W6 and W2 warrant heightened monitoring given seasonal variability. Salinity is not a significant concern at this time, though W2's rainy-season anomaly requires investigation. Temperature, while slightly above the aesthetic guideline of 25°C at most sites, is consistent with tropical groundwater and does not represent an immediate health risk. The priority intervention is pH correction through lime dosing or calcite filtration, followed by coagulation, filtration, and disinfection to complete a safe, internationally compliant drinking water treatment train.
5. Conclusion
The data collected during this study provided diversity of enteropathogenic protozoa and an overview of the physicochemical quality of groundwater in the Makepe, Ndogbong, Ndogpassi, Missoke and Ngodi bakoko districts of Douala. The physicochemical analyses showed that these waters were characterised by high temperatures, moderately mineralised, rich in dissolved particles and organic matter, and subject to contamination by organic waste linked to infiltration during both seasons. Overall findings indicate that temperature and TDS values generally fall within acceptable ranges for most sampling points; however, several wells, notably W2 and W6 exhibit elevated TDS during the dry season. Salinity levels are within safe limits at most locations, with W2 standing out as an outlier. Most critically, pH measurements across both wells and boreholes are consistently below internationally accepted standards for drinking water, representing the most significant water quality concern identified in this study and requiring urgent corrective intervention.
Biological analyses revealed cysts of 4 groups of protozoa: rhizopods, flagellates, ciliates and spore-formers. These waters show signs of anthropogenic contamination. Indicators of faecal contamination were isolated at all stations. Given the heavy use of these water resources for a wide range of household needs such as laundry, washing up, cooking, personal hygiene and even drinking, there is a risk that the population will develop several enteropathological and metabolic diseases such as amoebic dysentery, giardiosis, blastocytosis and other digestive disorders. People should treat this water before using it. The public authorities should set up groundwater quality monitoring programmes, as well as information and education programmes for the population in order to instill in them behaviours that are conducive to the management of these water ressources.
Abbreviations

Bi

Borehole

EU

European Union

TDS

Total Dissolved Solids

USEPA

United State Environnement Protection Agency

Wi

Well

WQT

Water Quality
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the members of the Animal Organisms Biology and Physiology Laboratory of the Faculty of Science at the University of Douala for their help in collecting samples and carrying out analyses. We also thank International Consulting Firm for Engineering and Sustainable Development (BIIDD) for technical and financial support.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest related to the publication of this article.
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    Mireille, K. T., Diazine, M. T., Belengfe, C. S., Ernest, K., Gilbert, N., et al. (2026). Physico-chemical Quality and Diversity of Cysts of Enteropathogenic Protozoa in Water from Wells and Boreholes in the City of Douala, Cameroon. International Journal of Sustainable Development Research, 12(2), 124-132. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14

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    Mireille, K. T.; Diazine, M. T.; Belengfe, C. S.; Ernest, K.; Gilbert, N., et al. Physico-chemical Quality and Diversity of Cysts of Enteropathogenic Protozoa in Water from Wells and Boreholes in the City of Douala, Cameroon. Int. J. Sustain. Dev. Res. 2026, 12(2), 124-132. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14

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    Mireille KT, Diazine MT, Belengfe CS, Ernest K, Gilbert N, et al. Physico-chemical Quality and Diversity of Cysts of Enteropathogenic Protozoa in Water from Wells and Boreholes in the City of Douala, Cameroon. Int J Sustain Dev Res. 2026;12(2):124-132. doi: 10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14

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  • @article{10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14,
  author = {Kapso Tchouankep Mireille and Mbog Therese Diazine and Chinche Sylvie Belengfe and Koji Ernest and Nguepidjo Gilbert and Teukam Soh Willy and Tonmeu Douyong Chimene Sandrine and Teufack Elisabeth and Tindo Maurice and Ajeagah Gideon and Lehman Leopold Gustave and Akono Ntonga Patrick},
  title = {Physico-chemical Quality and Diversity of Cysts of Enteropathogenic Protozoa in Water from Wells and Boreholes in the City of Douala, Cameroon},
  journal = {International Journal of Sustainable Development Research},
  volume = {12},
  number = {2},
  pages = {124-132},
  doi = {10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ijsdr.20261202.14},
  abstract = {In developing countries, access to drinking water in urban areas is limited. People living in certain neighbourhoods rely on wells (W) and boreholes (B) for their water needs. The aim of this study was to assess the physico-chemical and biological quality, and in particular the diversity of enteropathogenic protozoa present in this commonly used water in the city of Douala. Bi-monthly water samples were collected at 12 water points from July 2023 to March 2024. The physicochemical analyses consisted of measuring temperature, pH, salinity and total dissolved solids using a Water quality tester (WQT) multimeter model EZ-9909SP. Protozoans were isolated by direct slide staining, tube staining and concentration methods before observation under a light microscope at 40X magnification. The results show that the groundwater studied is acidic (pH =5.6±0.07 UC), with a salinity of up to 0.3 USP and rich in Total dissolved solids (TDS) (86 to 400 ppm). Biological analyses revealed the presence of 4 groups of protozoa and 11 species. Enteric protozoan cysts were mainly represented by rhizopods, with mean densities of 116 ± 23 cysts/L in well W1 and 96 ± 37 cysts/L in well W3. In well W6, flagellates reached a peak of 40 ± 6 cysts/L. In the well water, ciliates were virtually absent, while rhizopod cysts were more abundant in B1 (60 cysts/L) and B6 (34 cysts/L). Sporulated forms were present in the borehole water with an average density ranging from 14 (B1) cysts/L to 32 cysts/L (B5). On a time plan, the highest abundance was recorded in the dry season. Significant positive correlations were observed between flagellate viability and TDS (r= 0.324; p=0.000). Ciliates were significantly and positively correlated with salinity (r= 0.324; p=0.000). Rhizopods are inversely correlated to TDS (r= -0.181; p=0.030). The exogenous matter brought in by pollution considerably increases the adherence of cysts in biofilms and hence their abundance. Analysis has identified pH non-compliance as a critical and widespread water quality issue affecting all sampled wells and boreholes during both the rainy and dry seasons As recommendation, to suspend use of W3 for direct drinking water until pH correction is implemented. W3 recorded the lowest pH (~4.0–4.5), representing the highest health risk. Advise boiling and pH correction prior to consumption until permanent treatment is in place. Deploy pH correction units as an emergency measure at W1–W5 and all borehole sites.},
 year = {2026}
}

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  • TY  - JOUR
T1  - Physico-chemical Quality and Diversity of Cysts of Enteropathogenic Protozoa in Water from Wells and Boreholes in the City of Douala, Cameroon
AU  - Kapso Tchouankep Mireille
AU  - Mbog Therese Diazine
AU  - Chinche Sylvie Belengfe
AU  - Koji Ernest
AU  - Nguepidjo Gilbert
AU  - Teukam Soh Willy
AU  - Tonmeu Douyong Chimene Sandrine
AU  - Teufack Elisabeth
AU  - Tindo Maurice
AU  - Ajeagah Gideon
AU  - Lehman Leopold Gustave
AU  - Akono Ntonga Patrick
Y1  - 2026/06/26
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14
DO  - 10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14
T2  - International Journal of Sustainable Development Research
JF  - International Journal of Sustainable Development Research
JO  - International Journal of Sustainable Development Research
SP  - 124
EP  - 132
PB  - Science Publishing Group
SN  - 2575-1832
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijsdr.20261202.14
AB  - In developing countries, access to drinking water in urban areas is limited. People living in certain neighbourhoods rely on wells (W) and boreholes (B) for their water needs. The aim of this study was to assess the physico-chemical and biological quality, and in particular the diversity of enteropathogenic protozoa present in this commonly used water in the city of Douala. Bi-monthly water samples were collected at 12 water points from July 2023 to March 2024. The physicochemical analyses consisted of measuring temperature, pH, salinity and total dissolved solids using a Water quality tester (WQT) multimeter model EZ-9909SP. Protozoans were isolated by direct slide staining, tube staining and concentration methods before observation under a light microscope at 40X magnification. The results show that the groundwater studied is acidic (pH =5.6±0.07 UC), with a salinity of up to 0.3 USP and rich in Total dissolved solids (TDS) (86 to 400 ppm). Biological analyses revealed the presence of 4 groups of protozoa and 11 species. Enteric protozoan cysts were mainly represented by rhizopods, with mean densities of 116 ± 23 cysts/L in well W1 and 96 ± 37 cysts/L in well W3. In well W6, flagellates reached a peak of 40 ± 6 cysts/L. In the well water, ciliates were virtually absent, while rhizopod cysts were more abundant in B1 (60 cysts/L) and B6 (34 cysts/L). Sporulated forms were present in the borehole water with an average density ranging from 14 (B1) cysts/L to 32 cysts/L (B5). On a time plan, the highest abundance was recorded in the dry season. Significant positive correlations were observed between flagellate viability and TDS (r= 0.324; p=0.000). Ciliates were significantly and positively correlated with salinity (r= 0.324; p=0.000). Rhizopods are inversely correlated to TDS (r= -0.181; p=0.030). The exogenous matter brought in by pollution considerably increases the adherence of cysts in biofilms and hence their abundance. Analysis has identified pH non-compliance as a critical and widespread water quality issue affecting all sampled wells and boreholes during both the rainy and dry seasons As recommendation, to suspend use of W3 for direct drinking water until pH correction is implemented. W3 recorded the lowest pH (~4.0–4.5), representing the highest health risk. Advise boiling and pH correction prior to consumption until permanent treatment is in place. Deploy pH correction units as an emergency measure at W1–W5 and all borehole sites.
VL  - 12
IS  - 2
ER  -

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Author Information

  • Kapso Tchouankep Mireille

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

    Contact Email

    http://orcid.org/0009-0003-4849-7626

  • Mbog Therese Diazine

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

  • Chinche Sylvie Belengfe

    Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management, University of Buea, Buea, Cameroon

  • Koji Ernest

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

  • Nguepidjo Gilbert

    School of Medico-Sanitary Technicians of Medical Analyzes, Ministry of Public Health, Yaounde, Cameroon

  • Teukam Soh Willy

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

  • Tonmeu Douyong Chimene Sandrine

    National Laboratory of Public Health, Ministry of Public Health, Yaounde, Cameroon

  • Teufack Elisabeth

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

  • Tindo Maurice

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

  • Ajeagah Gideon

    Department of Biology and Physiology of Animal Organisms, University of Yaounde I, Yaounde, Cameroon

  • Lehman Leopold Gustave

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

  • Akono Ntonga Patrick

    Department of Animal Biology, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon

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